The Background of Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)

Barbara Grutter, Michigan resident and applicant to the Law School at the University of Michigan, filed an injunction against the university in 2007; subsequent to her rejection from admissions to the University, she had claimed that applicants classified as minorities – possessing inferior academic records than she – were accepted in lieu of her superior academic records. Almost 20 years prior to this case, Allan Bakke had filed an injunction against the University of California for similar reasons – and had his injunction upheld by the Supreme Court:

In the verdict delivered in the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke  (1978), Bakke cited unfair acceptance policies undertaken by the University of California; Bakke mentioned that applicants deemed to be ‘at economical disadvantages’ possessed lower scores than Bakke – Bakke, who had been rejected from the school, mentioned that his 14th Amendment Rights had been violated

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states that no racial or ethnic preference shall be given or granted to any particular group by any institution or program in receipt of federal funding or monetary restitution

The Case Profile of Grutter v. Bollinger

The following is a case profile of the legal trial eponymously titled ‘Grutter v. Bollinger’:

Date of the Trial: April 1st, 2003

Legal Classification: Administrative Law; this legal field associated with events and circumstances in which the Federal Government of the United States engages its citizens, including the administration of government programs, the creation of agencies, and the establishment of a legal, regulatory federal standard

The Nature of the Appeal: The following criminal activity and charges were cited by Barbara Grutter against Lee Bollinger within the appeal brought forth subsequent to the initial ruling:

Grutter maintained that in accordance to Regents of the University of California v. Bakke  (1978), she was subject to similar violations of her 14th Amendment Rights; she added that the Equality Clause within the 14th Amendment ensured equal translation and expression of the law without regard to race, religion, creed, gender, or ethnicity

United States Reports Case Number: 539 U.S. 306

Date of the Delivery of the Verdict: June 23rd, 2003

Legal Venue of Grutter v. Bollinger: The Supreme Court of the United States

Judicial Officer Responsible for Ruling: Chief Justice William Rehnquist

Involved Parties: The following are the parties named with regard to their involvement in the Grutter v. Bollinger case:

Barbara Grutter; Plaintiff – Grutter v. Bollinger

Lee Bollinger; Defendant – Grutter v. Bollinger

Verdict Delivered: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the University of Michigan; in accordance to their ruling, they required the overturning of the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke verdict, as well. The reasons for the decision were explained as follows:

Due to the fact that the Law School admission process involved supplemental facets outside of academic records, there was no way to prove that the applicants had been accepted as a result of their respective race(s)

While a quota employed by the admissions committee is indeed a Constitutional violation, the acknowledgment of race with regard to acceptance is defined as the legal protocol innate within Affirmative Action

Associated Legislation with regard to Grutter v. Bollinger: The following statutory regulations were employed with regard to the Grutter v. Bollinger trial:

The 14th Amendment illustrates legislation that disallows the government from infringing on the right(s) to pursue ‘Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness’ with regard to any and all citizens of the United States of America – this statute is applicable to all measures of gender, race, religion, and age

What are Child Abuse Cases?

Child Abuse Cases are defined as legal trials addressing the alleged mistreatment of children or minors; these offenses are considered to result in a variety of harmful and damaging to both the safety and wellbeing of the child victim. Charges within child abuse cases can range with regard to the implicit details and circumstances in which an alleged offense was reported as taking place:

Child abuse cases undertaking the legal hearing child abuse can take place in a direct, physical fashion, which includes attacks and sexual assault – however, child abuse can take place verbally and psychologically

Due to the fact that child abuse occur within a variety of settings, which may include a variance with regard to the abuser, the nature of abuse undergone, as well as the repercussions resulting from the child abuse offense

Types of Child Abuse Cases

Within the legal spectrum of Child Abuse Cases, 4 primary types of child abuses are considered to be amongst the most prominent and prevalent classifications of this crime:

Physical child abuse cases are considered to retain the most heightened nature of evidence with regard to the effects of this crime; due to the prominent nature of both the signs and effects of physical child abuse, bodily harm, injury, bruises, cuts, burns, and abrasions are common results of this type of child abuse

Emotional, Mental, Psychological Child Abuse is considered to be amongst the least exact, due to the common lack of physical evidence or signs; victims of this type of child abuse may be subjected to threats, exploitation, insult, and verbal assault from their abusers

Child abuse cases addressing the presumed mistreatment or neglect of a child will typically include a violation of that child’s rights and entitled freedoms; children’s rights provide that children are entitled to their respective parents or guardians providing them with a sufficient quality of life – this includes food, shelter, water, and the ability to participate in social and educational undertakings

Sexual child abuse cases are defined as legal hearings addressing the presumed violation of the rights of children or minors with regard to both an expressed age of consent in conjunction with the engagement in sexual activity; sexual activity in which minors or children are participatory is considered to be illegal, unethical, and unlawful in nature – this can include molestation, sexual activity, and intercourse

Famous Child Abuse Cases

The following are amongst the most notorious child abuse cases that have taken place within the United States:

The McMartin Nursery School Child Abuse Case

The Joel Steinberg Child Abuse Case

The Child Abuse Case of Dave Pelzer

The Roman Polanski Child Abuse Case

The Warren Jeffs Child Abuse Case

Reporting Child Abuse Cases

In the event that you have been abused, are aware of child abuse currently taking place, or are aware of child abuse that has taken place in the past, you are encouraged to contact the Child Abuse Hotline through their toll-free telephone number: 1-800-4-A-CHILD or 1-800-422-4453; all calls are kept confidential and private.

What is the Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping Case?

The Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping case, which is commonly referred to as the ‘Lindbergh Kidnapping’ – as well as its more sensationalized title as ‘The Crime of the Century’ – was a criminal investigation and legal trial involving the kidnapping and murder of the 2 year old son of Charles Lindbergh. Chas A. Lindbergh, the son of the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, was reported as being taken from the Lindbergh home in Hopewell, New Jersey on March 1st, 1932 between the hours of 8pm and 10pm.

Who was Charles Lindbergh?

Charles Lindbergh, born on February 4th, 1902, was considered to be one of the most prominent aviators of his time. Between May 20th and May 21st in 1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the longest nonstop, single passenger, international flight spanning from Long Island, New York to Paris France; Charles Lindbergh achieved this aviary feat in his famed airplane The Spirit of St. Louis. Subsequent to his achievement, Charles Lindbergh was lauded as a national hero; as a result, the kidnapping and murder of his son was given an enormous amount of public and media attention.

The Details of the Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping Case

On March 1st, 1932, Chas A. Lindbergh was reported to have been abducted from Charles Lindbergh’s home; on May 12th, 1932, the corpse assumed to belong to Chas A. Lindbergh was discovered in the woods nearby the Lindbergh home – upon medical investigation, the cause of death was assumed to be blunt force trauma to the skull, which resulted in a massive skeletal fracture:

Bruno Hauptmann, a German Jew who had immigrated to the United States was accused of both leaving a ransom note demanding the monetary compensation for the safe return of Chas A. Lindbergh; subsequent investigations reported that Hauptmann had used a homemade ladder to access Charles Lindbergh’s home in order to abduct Chas A. Lindbergh – Charles Lindbergh was a known proponent of Anti-Semitism

Subsequent to his trial, within which he maintained his innocence, Bruno Hauptmann was found guilty for kidnapping and sentenced to death; he was executed on April 3rd, 1936

The Mishandling of the Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping Case

The investigation of the Lindbergh Kidnapping continued after the arrest, conviction, and execution of Bruno Hauptmann; this was due to the fact a multitude of criminology and legal experts maintained that this case was egregiously mishandled by both Charles Lindbergh and the prosecution. As evidence and case studies surfaced, Hauptmann’s guilt was not only questioned, but also denied; the following case details of the Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping case suggest the unfounded evidence and legal flaws latent within the case itself:

Bruno Hauptmann was offered both $90,000, in addition to being spared from execution in the event that he pled guilty to the crime of which he was accused; although a confession would have entitled his family to a large sum of money ensuring their livelihood as well as prevented Hauptmann’s death, both Hauptmann and his wife Anna refused to deliver such a confession – until the time of her death, she maintained her husband’s innocence

The forensic report with regard to both the make of the ladder presumed to be built by Hauptmann was deemed to be incorrect, as well as the identification of the corpse of Chas A. Lindbergh was deemed to be inconclusive

Currently, the legal handling of the Charles Lindbergh Kidnapping case is considered by many to be a legal travesty as a result of the presumed mishandling of the case

Who was Baby Face Nelson?

Lester Joseph Gills, who was more commonly referred to in accordance with his nickname ‘Baby Face Nelson’, was an individual who was classified as a member of organized criminal organizations throughout the late 1920s and early 1930s until the time of his death. In contrast to his seemingly docile nickname, Baby Face Nelson was considered to be amongst the most dangerous, volatile, and violent criminals to have existed within the history of the United States. Over the course of his criminal activity, Baby Face Nelson was accused with a variety of criminal activities, which ranged from murder to racketeering; furthermore, Baby Face Nelson was associated with some of the most notorious and prolific criminals of his time:

Baby Face Nelson was first arrested in 1921 at the age of 13; he was accused of shooting another child with a gun that he had found; subsequent to his release from a juvenile facility, Baby Face Nelson continued to participate in a wide range of criminal activity

Baby Face Nelson was considered to be ‘Public Enemy Number One’ prior to his death in 1934; this was a classification utilized at the time by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) – this classification signified that that the individual classified as such was of the utmost danger to society

The Case Profile of Baby Face Nelson

The following is a case profile of both the crimes of Baby Face Nelson, as well as a legal classification of statutory legislation associated with the case:

Date of Birth: Baby Face Nelson was born on December 6th, 1908; he was killed on November 27th, 1934 by law enforcement agents – he was 25 years old

Residence: Baby Face Nelson frequented the Chicago area within his early years; after briefly traveling to the Western United States with the intent to commit robbery, he returned to Illinois – he was killed in Wilmette, Illinois

Dates of Crimes: Despite his arrest at 13 years of age, many historians classify Baby Face Nelson’s crime spree as lasting from 1928 to his death in 1934

Criminal Charges: Murder, Robbery, and Racketeering were amongst the many criminal charges associated with Baby Face Nelson

Notable Details and Personal Information: The following personal details have been considered to be contributory to the behavior and criminal actions undertaken by Baby Face Nelson; in addition, these case details were made mention within Baby Face Nelson’s criminal case:

Baby Face Nelson first partnered with Al Capone in a variety of Racketeering operations; however, due to Baby Face Nelson’s violent demeanor and erratic tendencies, Al Capone distanced himself from association with Baby Face Nelson

At the end of his life, Baby Face Nelson joined John Dillinger in a variety of robberies and prison escapes; Baby Face Nelson was considered to be amongst the closest to John Dillinger

Victims:  Although there does not exist a concrete determination of the number of Baby Face Nelson’s victims, reports have stated that he is responsible for the deaths of more FBI Agents than any other criminal in the history of the United States

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt. 1: Introduction

The landmark Supreme Court Case of Marbury v. Madison is considered to be amongst the most influential legal proceedings undertaken within the history of the Judicial System acting within the United States of America. This Marbury v. Madison Summary will not only explain the nature of the case and the pivotal parties involved, but also the events serving as catalysts for the legal undertaking of this trial.

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt. 2: Legal Classification

The Marbury v. Madison case was amongst the first of its kind, which are court cases classified as Administrative Law; administrative law is classified as the legal realm in which any or all interactions involving the Federal Government – ranging from interactions with other bodies of the Federal Government to interactions undertaken with the citizens of the United States – are mandated, overseen, reviewed, and regulated with regard to their expressed legality and constitutionality.

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt.3: Origins of the Case

The following events led to the Marbury v. Madison case:

John Adams, who was responsible for the appointment of William Marbury as a Justice of the Peace, failed to complete the commission prior to the termination of his presidency; as a Federalist, John Adams is assumed to have attempted to appoint as many Federalists to the cabinet of the President of the United States

The appointment process applicable to commissioning Justices of the Peace – as well as a bulk of other governmental appointees – required that the commission process be completed within the term of the President responsible for the respective appointment; however, William Marbury’s appointment failed to be completed prior to President Elect Thomas Jefferson assuming the office of the Presidency

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt. 4: The Presidential Policy of Thomas Jefferson

William Marbury, expecting to be permitted to assume his role as the newly-appointed Justice of the Peace, was denied commission on the part of President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison; in order to stifle Adams’ presumed attempt to place as many Federalists in the cabinet of the President, Thomas Jefferson had mandated that James Madison refuse to finalize the commission process – this resulted in a denial of William Marbury with regard to his newly-appointed position

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt.5: Legal Action

William Marbury, who was both angered and frustrated by what he had maintained was an administrative oversight, brought the case before the Supreme Court; the case was to be reviewed by Chief Justice John Marshall. Subsequent to trial, John Marshall maintained that Article III of the Constitution prohibited one branch of the Federal government to force action requested on the part of another branch; although John Marshall maintained that William Marbury was entitled to the position granted to him, the final decision was presumed to belong to Presidency of Thomas Jefferson.

Marbury v. Madison Summary pt.6: Conclusion

As a result of the Marbury v. Madison trial, both historians and legislatures alike commend Marshall on his ruling in lieu of the fact that William Marbury was denied his position. The reasons for this sentiment include the following:

John Marshall avoided the risk of allowing the Supreme Court to appear weak and flawed in the eyes of the public; in the event that he had demanded that Marbury be commissioned, he was well aware that Thomas Jefferson could refuse this decree

John Marshall, as a result of the Marbury v. Madison finding, allowed for the determination of statutory legislation with regard to administrative interaction between the branches of the Federal government

Marbury v. Madison Brief Explained

The Marbury v. Madison Brief is a legal brief that depicts the events and circumstances surrounding the eponymous court case considered to be amongst the first of many landmark Supreme Court Cases. The Marbury v. Madison Brief involved a dispute that took place with regard to the appointment process of the Justice of Peace position taking place during the transition of presidential terms undertaken within the Executive Branch of the United States of America; the Marbury v. Madison Brief cited judicial review with regard to the appointments of office mandated by John Adams at the time of the termination of his presidency; these events existed in tandem with President Elect Thomas Jefferson’s refusal to recognize the former president’s mandates.

The Marbury v. Madison Brief

The following is a case profile of the legal trial eponymously titled ‘Marbury v. Madison Brief’:

Date of the Trial: The Marbury v. Madison Brief began on February 11th, 1803

Legal Classification: Administrative Law; this legal field associated with events and circumstances in which the Federal Government of the United States engages its citizens, including the administration of government programs, the creation of agencies, and the establishment of a legal, regulatory federal standard

United States Reports Case Number: 5 U.S. 137

Date of the Delivery of the Verdict: A verdict with regard to the Marbury v. Madison Brief was delivered on February 24th, 1803

Legal Venue: The Supreme Court of the United States

Judicial Officer Responsible for Ruling: Chief Justice John Marshall

Involved Parties: The following are the parties named with regard to their involvement in the Marbury v. Madison Brief case:

Plaintiff William Marshall was the appointee to the position of Justice of the Peace; subsequent to his appointment and the termination of Adam’s presidency, President Elect Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison refused to finalize Marshall’s commission process – this resulted in the Marshall’s inability to assume his previously appointed position

Defendant James Madison was appointed as the Secretary of State in conjunction to the cabinet of President Elect Thomas Jefferson; in order to stifle Adams’ attempt to fill the cabinet with Federalists, James Madison was instructed to reject the commission of William Marshall as Justice of the Peace – commissions could only be approved while the appointing President remained in office

Verdict Delivered: The verdict delivered by John Marshall – the first Supreme Court Justice in the history of the United States – ruled in favor of James Madison, citing that although William Marshall was entitled to his appointed position, the Judicial Branch of the Federal Government was unable to force the actions of other branches of the Federal Government

Associated Legislation with regard to Marbury v. Madison Brief: The following statutory regulations were employed with regard to the Marbury v. Madison Brief:

Article III of the United States Constitution prevented the Judicial Branch from forcing the action of another branch of the Federal Government; as a result, Jefferson was not only constitutionally permitted to deny William Marshall’s appointment, but in accordance to this ruling, William Marshall was never appointed as a Justice of the Peace

Who is John Wayne Gacy?

John Wayne Gacy was a convicted serial murderer who resided in the Chicago Suburb of Des Plaines, Illinois. He was convicted of both the rape and murder of his victims, who ranged in age; however, all of John Wayne Gacy’s victims were reported as males. The murderous rampage of John Wayne Gacy lasted for approximately 6 years within which resulted in the murder of 33 victims.

John Wayne Gacy Profile

The following outlines the crimes of John Wayne Gacy

Date of Birth: John Wayne Gacy was born on March 17th, 1942; he dies on May 10th, 1994 from lethal injection resulting from his sentencing

Residence: During the time of his murders, John Wayne Gacy resided in Des Plaines, Illinois

Year of First Killing: In 1972, John Wayne Gacy was reported to have committed his first murder, which involved a 15 year old boy named Timothy McCoy; John Wayne Gacy and his wife met McCoy at a bus terminal in Chicago

Year of Apprehension: On December 21st, 1978, law enforcement agents entered the home of John Wayne Gacy in order to investigate the possible possession of Marijuana; they discovered 26 corpses belonging to his victims that were stuffed within the heating ducts of his home

Notable Details and Personal Information: The following personal details have been considered to be contributory to the behavior and criminal actions undertaken by John Wayne Gacy; in addition, these case details were made mention within John Wayne Gacy’s criminal trial:

John Wayne Gacy was married throughout the bulk of his murders; in certain cases, he had coerced his wife into remaining silent with regard to his crimes, in addition to her acting as a forced accomplice to these crimes

John Wayne Gacy had developed a persona, which he had named ‘Pogo the Clown’; while engaged in this persona, John Wayne Gacy would oftentimes entertain individuals at fundraising and charity functions

John Wayne Gacy hid 26 of his 33 victims within the ductwork within his home; only 7 of his victims were disposed of in other locations

John Wayne Gacy was charged with a variety of sex crimes prior to his murder conviction; the most famous was a case involving Robert Donnelly, who claimed that John Wayne Gacy had kidnapped him and forced him to participate in sexual slavery

As a child, John Wayne Gacy was recorded as having an antisocial personality disorder possibly resulting from abuse sustained by his father

Locations of the Murders: Des Plaines, Illinois; many of his victims were met within the City of Chicago

Victims:  John Wayne Gacy was charged for the murder of 33 individuals

Status as a Serial Killer: John Wayne Gacy is classified as a serial killer due to the fact that John Wayne Gacy was convicted of the murder of 3 or more individuals within the duration of a single month

Nature of Victims: John Wayne Gacy’s victims were classified as teenage boys

Punishment and Conviction: On March 13th, 1978, John Wayne Gacy was convicted of 33 murders; subsequent to the passing of the a statute allowing capital punishment within the State of Illinois in 1977, he was sentenced to incarceration and death as the Stateville Correctional Facility in Crest Hill, Illinois

Who were Bonnie and Clyde?

Bonnie and Clyde – commonly known by the moniker given to Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow – were a romantically-involved couple who undertook a crime spree lasting upwards of 2 years. Bonnie and Clyde began their criminal activity shortly after their first meeting in 1930; shortly after this meeting, Clyde was imprisoned and released in 1932 – after his release, Bonnie and Clyde embarked on a crime spree taking place between 1932 and 1934. On May 23rd, 1934 – in the State of Louisiana – Bonnie and Clyde were ambushed and killed by law enforcement agents:

Within their 2-year string of criminal activities, Bonnie and Clyde were considered to be responsible for a wide range of criminal activity; furthermore, the couple managed to evade police capture several times – however, this oftentimes resulted in the murder of both law enforcement agents and civilians

Subsequent to their criminal activity began in 1932, Bonnie and Clyde were never arrested

The Case Profile of Bonnie and Clyde

The following is a case profile of both the crimes of Bonnie and Clyde, as well as a legal classification of statutory legislation associated with their respective case:

Date of Birth: Bonnie Parker was born on October 1st, 1910; Clyde Barrow was born on March 24th, 1909 – both Bonnie and Clyde died at the ages of 25 on May 23rd, 1934

Residence: Bonnie and Clyde undertook residencies across the span of the United States in order to avoid capture

Date of the Crimes: 1932 to May 23rd, 1934

Criminal Charges: Bonnie and Clyde were accused of the following crimes:

1st Degree Murder; murder committed in an unlawful, illegal, premature, and purposeful fashion

Kidnapping and Abduction; the illegal act of the abduction of an unwilling or unknowing individual at the hands of another individual or entity

Armed Robbery; the use of a deadly firearm in order to forcibly steal possessions and belongings belonging to another individual or entity

Resisting Arrest; the fleeing or stifling of the arrest process enacted by a criminal with regard to a resisting officer or law enforcement agent

Assault; the harming or injuring of one individual by the hands of another

Attempted Murder; fatally-harmful action undertaken in order to cause the purposeful death of another individual

Notable Details and Personal Information: The following persons were associated with the criminal activity undertaken by Bonnie and Clyde:

Raymond Hamilton; a friend of Bonnie and Clyde who accompanied the couple until his arrest

Ira Barrow; the brother of Clyde Barrow who accompanied the couple until he was killed by police

William Daniel Jones; a friend of Bonnie and Clyde replacing Raymond Hamilton subsequent to his capture

Blanche Barrow; the wife of Ira Barrow accompanied the couple until her capture

Victims:  Bonnie and Clyde was charged for the murder of upwards of 10 individuals; 9 of which were law enforcement agents – Bonnie and Clyde were also accused of the kidnapping and robbery of a multitude of individuals

What is Brown v. Board of Education (1954)?

Brown v. Board of Education is considered to be a landmark Supreme Court case contributory the eventual cessation of segregation imposed between African American and Caucasian citizens of the United States. Brown v. Board of Education addressed a circumstance that had taken place within the State of Kansas in the city of Topeka; Linda Brown, who was a third grade student, had been forced to attend a segregated school – the African American students in this school were forbidden from attending school with Caucasian students:

The Case Profile of Brown v. Board of Education

The following is a case profile of the legal trial eponymously titled ‘Brown v. Board of Education’:

Date of the Trial: 1954

Legal Classification: Civil Law; Civil Law is a legal field in that typically addresses nonviolent circumstances and events that are perceived as presumable wrongs suffered – Civil Law  cases this judicial review within Civil Law is typically reliant upon legal statutes in lieu of past court cases, decisions, or preexisting findings

United States Reports Case Number: 347 U.S. 483

Date of the Delivery of the Verdict: May 17th, 1954

Legal Venue: The Supreme Court of the United States

Judicial Officer Responsible for Ruling: Chief Justice Earl Warren

Involved Parties: The following are the parties named with regard to their involvement in the Brown v. Board of Education case:

Oliver Brown – named as both the plaintiff, as well as the father of Linda Brown – contended that the separation and segregation taking place within public American educational systems were a direct violation of equal rights afforded to every citizen of the United States

The Board of Education of the State of Kansas was named as the defendant; this Board of Education was cited as violating the Constitution upon enacting segregation within the public educational system

Verdict Delivered: The entirety of Supreme Court Justices delivered a verdict in favor of Oliver Brown; subsequent to this decision, segregation in the United States was overturned and forbidden

Associated Legislation with regard to Brown v. Board of Education: The following statutory regulations were employed with regard to the Brown v. Board of Education trial:

Brown v. Board of Education cited the Louisiana Railway Car Act as a reference to the notion of separate but equal being unconstitutional; Oliver Brown maintained that the segregation of educational systems was an implicit denial of equal rights

The 14th Amendment to the Constitution required that all citizens of the United States be granted equal protection and equal rights; Brown contended that segregation was in direct violation of this statute

Subsequent Cases Associated with Brown v. Board of Education: The following legal cases and trials made mention and reference to the findings undertaken in Brown v. Board of Education:

Brown v. Board of Education was a Supreme Court case that followed suit with associated court cases involving Civil Rights and Equality, such as Plessy v. Ferguson and the Dred Scott Case; however, the verdict delivered in this case was far more favorable than those delivered with regard to similar cases.

Acts of Terrorism Explained:

An act of terrorism refers to the systematic and diabolical use of terror as a means of coercion. Although there is no universally criminal law definition of terrorism, common characteristics of the act refer to the delivery of violent acts which are intended to precipitate fear on a given society or nation. Acts of terror are typically perpetrated for a political, ideological or religious goal; terrorists deliberately target and subsequently disregard the safety of civilians to forcefully instill an ideological goal.

When a terrorist organization attempts to achieve such a goal through terrorism, they are using fear and terror as their primary mechanisms; violent acts, when delivered to a society at random, invariably make a community or nation acknowledge the underlying motive. All terrorists and their underlying terrorist organizations will not align themselves with government organizations or formal government bodies.

Definitions of terrorism will always include acts of unlawful violence and war. That being said, any action that precipitates violence on a society and disrupts the harmony and general function of a sociological setting will be considered an act of terrorism.

The September 11th Attacks:

The September 11th attacks were a series of systematic suicide attacks coordinated by Al-Qaeda—a national terrorist organization comprised of Muslim extremists and led by Osama Bin Laden.

On the morning of September 11th, 19 al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four commercial airplanes and intentionally crashed them into the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia and the fourth plane crashed into an open field near Shanksville Pennsylvania.

The attacks of September 11th killed every single passenger on board of the airliners; in total, nearly 3,000 victims died in the attacks of September 11th. Additionally, according to the New York State Health Department, 836 responders (firefighters and police personnel) perished from the aftereffects of the attack and the recovery attempts.

The attacks of September 11th on the World Trade Center killed 2,752 victims (343 firefighters and 60 police officers) and the attacks on the Pentagon caused 184 deaths; the majority of victims who died in the Pentagon were civilians and nationals from 70 different countries.

Attackers:

Within hours of the September 11th attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation was able to determine the names and personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers. Mohamed Atta, was pinpointed as the ringleader of the 19 hijackers and one of the pilots of the four hijacked aircrafts. Similar to the other hijackers, Atta died in the attack; however, his luggage, which never made the connection from his flight, contained detailed documents and papers that revealed the identities of all 19 hijackers.

By midday of September 11th, the National Security Agency intercepted a string of communications that labeled Osama bin Laden as the unwavering mastermind behind the attacks of September 11th. The FBI investigation of the September 11th attacks was the largest and most comprehensive investigation in the history of the agency. The United States government, following this investigation, determined that al-Qaeda, headed by Osama bin Laden, was responsible for the attacks of September 11th.

The response to the September 11th Attacks:

The United States federal government responded to the September 11th attacks by launching the War on Terror. This counter-attack included the enacting of the USA PATRIOT Act and the invasion of Afghanistan to eventually dispose the Taliban—the agency who had harbored al-Qaeda terrorists.