The Background of Cohens v. Virginia (1821)

The case of ‘Cohens v. Virginia’ involved two brothers – P.J. Cohen and M.J. Cohen – who undertook the sale of tickets for the Lottery of District of Columbia (Washington D.C.) within the State of Virginia; although Congress had mandated the legality of State lotteries within the United States, the State of Virginia had enacted legislature forbidding the sale of lottery tickets belonging to other States and Districts within Virginia borders. Although the legality latent within the case was a primary consideration, the focal point of the Cohens v. Virginia case is considered to be the establishment of policy regulating the ability of the Federal Government to overrule legislation belonging to individual States; as a result, the Cohens argued their case before the Supreme Court on the grounds that the Federal Government mandated a legal lottery: If you need legal advice and assistance, contact Virginia lawyers.

The Judiciary Act of 1789 states that all Judiciary power is to be concentrated within a single entity, which is known as the Supreme Court of the United States; as a result, legal hearings and decisions deemed to be under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government under the Supremacy Clause are to be tried before the Supreme Court of the United States

The Case Profile of Cohens v. Virginia

The following is a case profile of the legal trial eponymously titled ‘Cohens v. Virginia’:

Date of the Trial: March 3rd, 1821

Legal Classification: Administrative Law; this legal field associated with events and circumstances in which the Federal Government of the United States engages its citizens, including the administration of government programs, the creation of agencies, and the establishment of a legal, regulatory federal standard

Accused Criminal Activity: The following criminal activity and charges were cited by P.J. Cohen and M.J. Cohen – referred to as ‘Cohens’ against the State of Virginia within the appeal brought forth subsequent to the initial ruling:

The Cohens argued that their respective arrest within the State of Virginia was in violation of the Constitution, resulting from the fact that they were selling legal lottery tickets mandated by the Federal Government

United States Reports Case Number: 19 U.S. 264

Date of the Delivery of the Verdict: March 3rd, 1821

Legal Venue of Cohens v. Virginia: The Supreme Court of the United States

Judicial Officer Responsible for Ruling: Chief Justice John Marshall

Involved Parties: The following are the parties named with regard to their involvement in the Cohens v. Virginia case:

P.J. Cohens and M.J. Cohens; Plaintiff(s) – Cohens v. Virginia

The State of Virginia; Defendant – Cohens v. Virginia

Verdict Delivered: The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the State of Virginia, explaining that the State of Virginia was entitled to enact such legislation within the borders of the States. However, the State of Virginia claimed that the Federal Government was unable to hear cases with regards to individual State legislation; this claim was overruled upon citing that the Federal Government was to assume finality with regard to matters and circumstances existing between multiple States.

Associated Legislation with regard to Cohens v. Virginia: The following statutory regulations were employed with regard to the Cohens v. Virginia trial:

Article III of the Constitution of the United States – within Section 2 – illustrates a legislative clause untitled the Supremacy Clause, which allows the Federal Government to maintain authority over all legislation in the event that contrast and unfair advantage exists; this clause was imposed in order to ensure a uniform and equal legal process within the entirety of the United States

Who is Richard Ramirez?

Also known as the ‘Night Stalker’, Richard Ramirez is an American serial Killer who is currently awaiting execution on California’s death row at San Quentin State Prison.

Richard Ramirez, during his youth, was a satanic worshipper and a habitual drug user. When Ramirez turned 12 he became infatuated with his cousin, Mike, who was a Vietnam veteran and ex-Green Beret. While home deployment, Mike commonly shared gruesome war pictures with Ramirez that portrayed savage images of human torture, rape and murder. Overtime, Richard Ramirez became fascinated with this pictorial brutality.

Richard Ramirez’s influences:

Richard Ramirez, during this time, would often smoke marijuana with his cousin while talking about the war and the savageness that took place in Vietnam. One day, in retaliation to complaints made by his wife that he was lazy, Mike (Richard Ramirez’s) cousin shot his wife in the face with Richard Ramirez standing just a few feet away. As a result of his veteran status, Mike was sentenced to only seven years in prison for the savage killing.

By the time Richard Ramirez reached 18, he was a habitual drug user and Satan worshipper. While addicted to drugs, Richard Ramirez toiled in petty crimes that eventually grew more severe in nature; in the beginning of his menacing run, Richard Ramirez was arrested on numerous drug and theft charges.

Richard Ramirez’s turn to Pure Evil:

After being arrested for the aforementioned crimes, Richard Ramirez upon being released, eventually moved to Southern California, where he advanced to armed robbery and breaking into homes. When Richard Ramirez became a proficient criminal, he began to linger in the homes of his victims.

On June 28, 1984, Richard Ramirez entered through an opened window of Jennie Vincow (aged 79). After finding nothing of value to steal, Richard Ramirez grew incredibly angry and decided to murder Vincow while she was sleeping. This heinous act aroused Richard Ramirez to the point where Ramirez would begin partaking in sexual activities with his victim’s corpses.

After remaining quiet for eight months, Richard Ramirez assaulted 22-year-old Angela Barrio outside of her condo; after injuring barrio, he entered the girl’s condo where he killed Dayle Okazaki (Barrio’s roommate). Within an hour of the murder, Ramirez murdered Tsai-Lian Yu in Monterey Park, by dragging the women out of her car and shooting her; three days later Richard Ramirezz murdered an eight-year-old girl and numerous throughout the mid-1980s. 

The savageness intensified with each victim as Richard Ramirez began partaking in post-mortem mutilations. Richard Ramirez grew a disgusting satisfaction for his crimes and eventually started leaving pentagrams alongside his victim’s bodies. 

The end of Richard Ramirez’s Deadly Reign:

On August 24, 1985 Richard Ramirez travelled south of Los Angeles, where he broke into the home of Bill Cards and fiancée, Inez Erickson. Ramirez shot Carns in the head and raped Erickson. Ramirez then tied up Erickson and left the apartment. While struggling, Erickson gained enough strength to peek out her window where she saw Ramirez leaving. Upon driving away, an observant teenager wrote down the license plate number of Ramirez’s car after noticing it cruising suspiciously throughout the neighborhood. The information was sent to the Police who later located the abandoned car and collected fingerprints from inside. A computer match was then made of the prints and the identification of Richard Ramirez, the night stalker, became known.

Unaware that his picture was made public, Ramirez was positively identified after entering a Los Angeles liquor store. When word spread the Ramirez was nearby, a mob formed and began chasing Ramirez with steel pipes and rods. When the mob caught up with Ramirez, they subdued him until police arrived.

Richard Ramirez Trial:

Due to countless appeals on the part of Ramirez’s defense, the trial lasted an exhausting four years. On September 20, 1989, Richard Ramirez was found guilty of 43 counts, including 13 murders and charges revolving around sodomy, burglary and rape. Currently, as stated before, Richard Ramirez waits on the death row, until he runs out of appeals.

Al Capone Biography: Background on Al Capone

Al Capone is viewed as one of the most notorious and recognizable criminals in the history of the United States; many historians and law enforcement agents maintain that the name ‘Al Capone’ is oftentimes synonymous with the modern institution of organized crime. Throughout his criminal history, Al Capone is considered to have evaded a bulk of criminal charges and convictions; upon his apprehension, law enforcement agents found themselves unable to charge him with anything but tax evasion – however, the conviction of tax evasion was responsible for Al Capone’s incarceration. Although considered to have undertaken a wide range of criminal activity, Al Capone is primarily recognized for both his participation and masterminding of the smuggling of alcohol during the time of prohibition in the United States:

Al Capone Biography: Facts About Al Capone

The following are facts reflecting Al Capone Biography:

Al Capone was born on January 17th, 1899 in Brooklyn, New York; he died on January 25th, 1947 while in his home in Miami, Florida subsequent to his release from prison in 1939 – he was 48 years old

Al Capone is considered to have fronted and organized one of the foremost and illegal smuggling operations of smuggling; between 1920 and 1932, a legislative ban on alcoholic beverages  was put in place by a the Federal Government of the United States; Capone’s racketeering was considered to be a reactionary response to prohibition, which facilitated the availability of alcohol

Al Capone was also considered to be a ‘Bootlegger’, which is an individual participating in the illegal activity of smuggling that is conducted through secretive and clandestine means

The criminal activity – both structural and commercial in nature – involved the illegal provision, sale, and exchange of a wide variety of illegal and unlawful undertakings, ranging from the smuggling of alcohol to the organization of prostitution rings

Al Capone Biography: The Conviction of Al Capone

Subsequent to the finding of a ‘guilty’ verdict with regard to his charges of tax evasion, Al Capone was sentenced to an 11-year prison sentenced to be served in the United States Penitentiary in Atlanta, Georgia; in addition to this sentencing, the presiding judge mandated that the liens and repossession notices were to be placed upon the estate of Al Capone – however, the following events took place with regard to the conviction and sentencing of Al Capone:

Upon the repeal of prohibition as expressed within the 21st Amendment of the United States Constitution, Al Capone was forbidden from communicating with any individuals perceived to be former criminal associates with regard to his smuggling endeavors

On August 11th, 1934, Al Capone was transferred to Alcatraz State Penitentiary within which he was incarcerated until January 6th, 1939

On January 6th, 1939, Al Capone was moved to the Federal Prison in Terminal Island, California within which he served a year’s time; he received an early parole on November 16th, 1939 – upon parole, he resided in Palm Island, Florida until the time of his death

Al Capone Biography: Al Capone’s Final Days

Although certain Al Capone Biography suggests that a bulk of Al Capone’s estate was repossessed by the United States government, many assumed that a vast fortune remained in his possession, which was hid from law enforcement agents; however, this claim was neither substantiated nor proven

Subsequent to his parole, Al Capone continued to reside in Florida; reports of the final years of his life maintain that he was deemed unfit to continue his command with regard to the criminal organization for which he was once responsible

Close family and friends reported that prior to his stroke, he had undergone a traumatic degree of mental degradation; reports outlining the details of Al Capone’s final years illustrate that he displayed symptoms of insanity, which included ranting, raving, and paranoia

What is a Terrorist?

A terrorist refers to an individual or organization that inflicts terror in a systematic and deliberate way on a society as a means of coercion.  Technically there is no universally criminal law definition of terrorism; however, common characteristics of the act refer to the delivery of violent acts intended to precipitate fear on a given society.

Acts of terror are typically perpetrated for a political, ideological or religious goal; a terrorist will deliberately target and subsequently disregard the safety of civilians to carry-out some form of initiative. All terrorists and their underlying terrorist organizations will not align themselves with government organizations or formal government bodies.

Definitions of terrorism will always include acts of unlawful violence and war. That being said, any action that precipitates violence on a society and disrupts the harmony and general function of a particular community or sociological setting will be considered an act of terrorism. There are two forms of terrorists: international terrorists and domestic terrorists. Although both forms of terrorists will inflict carnage on a society that is primarily based off a skewed or ultra-aggressive ideology, the domestic terrorist carries-out his or her violent actions on their home country, while an International terrorist will deliver their violent actions abroad.

Oklahoma City Bombing:

The Oklahoma City bombing was a domestic terrorist attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in downtown Oklahoma City. The Oklahoma City bombing took place on April 19, 1996 and was coordinated and delivered by Timothy McVeigh. The Oklahoma City bombing was the most violent and destructive act of terrorism on American soil until the attacks of September 11th, 2001.

The Oklahoma City bombing took the lives of 168 people (mostly employees of the United States Federal government) including 19 children under the age of 6. Additionally, more than 680 people were injured in the Oklahoma City Bombing; the severe blast damaged nearly 325 buildings within a sixteen-block radius of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building.

The Oklahoma City Bombing was sparked by Timothy McVeigh, an American militia movement compatriot. The building exploded when an explosive-filled truck–parked in front of the building—was detonated. 

The Suspects of the Oklahoma City Bombing

Within 90 minutes of the Oklahoma City Bombing, Timothy McVeigh was stopped by a state trooper for driving without a license plate; Mcveigh was subsequently charged with unlawfully carrying a weapon. Subsequent forensic evidence quickly linked McVeigh and Terry Nichols to the Oklahoma City Bombing; Terry Nichols, McVeigh’s chief accomplice was arrested in the following days and both were charged with the terrorist act.

Timothy McVeigh organized and instituted the Oklahoma City bombing as a result of his hatred for the United States federal government. McVeigh was chiefly motivated by his perceived mishandling of the Waco Siege and the Ruby incident—the Oklahoma City Bombing coincided with the second anniversary of the deaths at Waco.

Investigation of the Oklahoma City Bombing:

The official investigation of the Oklahoma City Bombing was the largest criminal investigation in American history. Both Nichols and Timothy McVeigh were tried and subsequently convicted in 1997. McVeigh was executed via the lethal injection on June 11, 2001 and Nichols, for his role as McVeigh’s accomplice, was sentenced to life in prison. Lori and Michael Fortier, accomplices who knew of the impending attacks, testified against McVeigh and Nichols. For their role in the Oklahoma City Bombing and failing to warn authorities of the impending attack, Michael was sentenced to twelve years in prison and Lori eventually received immunity for her testimony.

What is the Supreme Court?

The Supreme Court of the United States of America is the highest court system in the nation. The Supreme Court, as a result of this classification and function, possesses ultimate; however largely discretionary, appellate jurisdiction over all state and federal court systems, as well as original jurisdictions or local courts, in the United States.

The Supreme Court of the United States meets in Washington, D.C. in the United States Supreme Court Building. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight acting associate justices who are nominated by the President of the United States of America and subsequently confirmed by the U.S. Senate. When a chief justice is appointed, he or she maintains life tenure unless they are removed after impeachment.

What is the Supreme Court Cases List?

The Supreme Court Cases list refers to the tangible archives, which store and house all decisions rendered within the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court cases list is therefore the tangible archives that hold all the decisions rendered by the Supreme Court. In addition to the verdicts or precedents established, the Supreme Court Cases list will outline the main points of the case as well as the intricacies aligned with the case. The Supreme Court Cases list will also include all testimonials, significant entries of evidence, as well as crucial dialogue that was latent in the particular case.

Any individual or legal professional can evaluate these documents to analyze the intricacies surrounding any Supreme Court Case. The ability to evaluate the Supreme Court Cases List will offer a description and ideological approach in regards to how laws are viewed and subsequently upheld in the United States. Additionally, by viewing a Supreme Court Cases list an individual can better understand the United States Constitution and the United States’ Federal government’s interpretation of particular laws or sociological issues.

The majority of cases heard in the Supreme Court carry an unwavering significance in regards to sociological precedence and importance. The cases heard in the Supreme Court essentially traversed through the lower court systems who viewed the particular subject matter as hazy or ambiguous. As a result of the pending nature, the case and the attached subject matter is sent to the Supreme Court where the highest and most prominent judicial officials will review the subject matter latent in the particular case. As stated before, engaging and evaluating a Supreme Court Cases list will enable an individual or legal professional to evaluate precedents and the tangible decision making process latent in groundbreaking legislature or rulings. These particular cases essentially laid the groundwork for fundamental sociological behavior and formalities that are still present in the United States to this day.

How to observe the Supreme Court Cases List:

A Supreme Court cases list can be obtained and subsequently reviewed on numerous websites, including the United States’ Supreme Court website, located at www.supremecourt.gov. Additionally, the tangible version of the United States Supreme Court list can be observed at the national archives in Washington, D.C.

What is a Terrorist?

The act of terrorism refers to the systematic and diabolical use of terror as a means of coercion. Although there is no universally criminal law definition of terrorism, common characteristics of the act refer to the delivery of violent acts which are intended to precipitate fear on a given society. Acts of terror are typically perpetrated for a political, ideological or religious goal; terrorists deliberately target and subsequently disregard the safety of civilians. All terrorists and their underlying terrorist organizations will not align themselves with government organizations or formal government bodies.

Definitions of terrorism will always include acts of unlawful violence and war. That being said, any action that precipitates violence on a society and disrupts the harmony and general function of a particular community or sociological setting will be considered an act of terrorism.

Who is the Unabomber?

Ted Kaczinski, infamously known as the Unabomber, was an American mathematician, anarchist and drastic social critic who engaged in several acts of mail bombing.  The Unabomber inflicted carnage through mail bombs for nearly 20 years; the Unabomber’s terrorist activities took the lives of three people and injured 23 others.

Ted Kaczinski (also known as the Unabomber) was born in Chicago, Illinois where he was immediately viewed as a child prodigy due to his ability to excel academically at a young age. At the age of 16, the Unabomber was accepted into Harvard University where he eventually earned a Bachelor’s degree. The Unabomber continued his education at the University of Michigan, where Kaczinski earned a PhD in mathematics. The Unabomber, at age 25, became an assistant professor at the University of California, Berkeley, but resigned just two years later.

The Unabomber begins his reign of Terror:

After resigning from his post at Berkeley, the Unabomber moved to a remote cabin in Montana, which lacked running water and electricity. While removed from society, Kaczinski started a bombing campaign after watching the land and wilderness being destroyed by development companies. From 1978 to 1995, the Unabomber sent 16 bombs to various targets, including airline companies and Universities.

The Unabomber’s efforts, which killed three people and injured 23 others, prompted Kaczinski to send a letter to the New York Times on April 24, 1995. The letter was in a sense a negotiation, for the Unabomber promised to “desist from terrorism” if the Times or the Washington Post published his anti-government manifesto. In this manifesto, the Unabomber claimed that his killings and bombings were extreme but essential to attach attention to the destruction of human freedom that is widely precipitated by the modernization of technology.

FBI Investigation and capture:

The Federal Bureau of Investigation conducted a costly investigation and labeled Kaczinski (before his identity was known) as the “UNABOM” (University and Airline Bomber). Despite the FBI’s widespread investigation efforts, the Unabomber was not initially located. The Unabomber; however, was eventually found when Kaczynski’s brother and his brother’s wife recognized Kaczynski’s writing style and beliefs latent in the manifesto. Through this observance, the Unabomber’s family members tipped off the FBI.

The Unabomber’s Trial and Sentence:

Once located and subsequently caught, the Unabomber’s lawyers, who were court appointed, were eventually dismissed when Kaczynski opted to defend himself. The court eventually entered a plea, where the Unabomber was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. The Unabomber was officially designated a “domestic terrorist” by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Who is Patricia Krenwinkel?

Patricia Krenwinkel is an American criminal and former member of Charles Manson’s murderous cult, known as the “Family.” Patricia Krenwinkel who was convicted of murder in the first degree for her involvement in the Tate and LaBianca murders.

Patricia Krenwinkel was born in Los Angeles, California to a middle-class family. She attended High School in the Los Angeles area where she was routinely bullied and teased for being overweight and for an excessive growth of body hair precipitated by an endocrine condition. When her parents divorced she strongly considered becoming a nun and even enrolled at a Jesuit College in Mobile, Alabama. Within one semester; however, Patricia Krenwinkel dropped out and moved back to California where she lived in her step-sister’s apartment.

Patricia Krenwinkel involvement with Charles Manson

Patricia Krenwinkel first met Charles Manson in Manhattan Beach, California in 1967. Mesmerized by Manson’s charisma and charmed by his complements, Patricia Krenwinkel decided to move to San Francisco with Manson and two other girls, known as “Charlie’s Girls”.

As the Manson family grew, Patricia Krenwinkel and the other members went on a drug and sex-filled tour of the American west in an old school bus. When the hippie movement dissipated in 1969, Patricia Krenwinkel and the rest of the Family members opted to live in isolation from the rest of society. The eventually convinced a blind and elderly man, George Spahn, to allow them to love on his property. While the family converged and lived on Spahn’s ranch, Patricia Krenwinkel acted as a mother figure to the Family’s several illegitimate children.

Patricia Krenwinkel’s participation in the Family’s Murders:

Patricia Krenwinkel was a fundamental participant in the infamous murders that took place on August 9, 1969 at the home of actress Sharon Tate and director Roman Polanski. The murders began when a fellow Family member murdered teenager Steven Parent who was parked in a car in the estate’s driveway. After the murder, Patricia Krenwinkel and two other family members entered the house where mayhem ensued.

After entering, Patricia Krenwinkel dragged coffee heiress Abigail Folger from her bedroom to the living room, where she violently stabbed her. Folger escaped outside following the first bout of stabbing, only to be caught by Patricia Krenwinkel. When caught, Folger was brutally murdered by Patricia Krenwinkel on the front lawn of the estate.

After the Tate murder took place, Patricia Krenwinkel was a willing participant in the murders that occurred the following night. Along with Manson and a number of Family members, Patricia Krenwinkel went to the home of Southern California grocer Leno LaBianca and his wife, Rosemary. Manson tied the couple up and left the brutal slayings to Patricia Krenwinkel and two other members of the Family. After killing the couple, the killers stayed in the LaBianca’s home for a few hours where they ate and played with the deceased couple’s dogs, while Manson and the other Family members drove around Los Angeles looking for their next victim.

Patricia Krenwinkel’s Arrest and Trial:

After dodging numerous attempts by police to investigate the ranch (law enforcement officers initially brought the Family up on charges of auto theft) former Family member, Susan Atkins, who was in police custody, told her cellmate gruesome details revolving around the Tate and LaBianca murders. As a result of Atkins’ confessions, Patricia Krenwinkel was arrested near her aunt’s home in Mobile, Alabama on December 1, 1969. The following day, Patricia Krenwinkel was indicted for seven counts of first-degree murder and one count conspiracy to commit murder.

Following a nine month trial, Patricia Krenwinkel was convicted of all counts and sentenced to death on March 29, 1971. The death sentence imposed on Patricia Krenwinkel; however, was commuted to life in prison following the California Supreme Court’s decision which invalidated all death sentences imposed in California prior to 1972.

While in prison, Patricia Krenwinkel distanced herself from Manson and the family; she earned a Bachelor’s degree in Human Sciences and remains an active participant in the prison’s rehabilitative programs. Patricia Krenwinkel has been imprisoned longer than any woman in the history of California’s prison system.

The Background of Lau v. Nichols:

Lau v. Nichols was a landmark civil rights case that was initiated by Chinese American students who lived in San Francisco, California. The students, who had limited English proficiency, claimed that were not receiving special help in their various classes. The students argued that they were denied aid primarily due to their inability to speak English; the students stated they were entitled to such aid under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that effectively placed a ban on educational discrimination on the basis of national origin.

The students claimed that the schools lacked appropriate accommodations that ultimately denied them from receiving equal educational opportunities on the basis of their ethnicity.

Lau v. Nichols Trial:

In 1974, the United States Supreme Court ruled in favor of the students; this ruling ultimately expanded the rights of students nationwide who possessed an inability to fluently speak English. The Supreme Court of the United States stated that these students shall be treated with equality among all schools throughout the nation.

The decision in Lau v. Nichols remains a landmark decision that is closely aligned with the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Lau v. Nichols is frequently relied upon and raised as a precedent in many similar cases.

The Case Profile of Lau v. Nichols:

The following is a case profile of the legal trial eponymously titled ‘Lau v. Nichols’:

Date of the Trial: Lau v. Nichols was argued on December 10, 1973

Legal Classification: Administrative Law; this legal field associated with events and circumstances in which the Federal Government of the United States engages its citizens, including the administration of government programs, the creation of agencies, and the establishment of a legal, regulatory federal standard

United States Reports Case Number: 414 U.S. 563

Date of the Delivery of the Verdict: Lau v. Nichols was decided on January 21, 1974

Legal Venue of Lau v. Nichols: The United States Supreme Court

Judicial Officer Responsible for Ruling: Chief Justice Warren E. Burger

Verdict Delivered: The Supreme Court of the United States in Lau v. Nichols ruled that public schools, based on the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, must treat all students equally regardless of their language; therefore, students who are incapable of speaking English must be awarded resources to facilitate their learning.

Associated Legislation with regard to Lau v. Nichols: The following statutory regulations were employed with regard to the Lau v. Nichols trial:

Section 601 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Who was Lenny Bruce?

Lenny Bruce, born October 13, 1925 was a Jewish-American stand-up comedian. After studying acting, he performed stand-up routines in various nightclubs throughout the United States in the 1950s. His act was a hit across the nations through a developing style marked by black humor and punctuated with severe obscenities. As he gained notoriety, Lenny Bruce focused his act on material criticisms aimed at various social and legal establishments, as well as organized religion and other controversial topics. Lenny Bruce died of a drug overdose in Hollywood California on August, 3rd 1966, but is still remembered as a trend-setting comedian and an activist for free speech.

Lenny Bruce’s Legal Battles:

On October 4th, 1961, Lenny Bruce was arrested for obscenity; his act at the Jazz Workshop in San Francisco had used foul language and was laced in egregious sexual undertones. Although the jury ultimately acquitted Lenny Bruce of the charges, other law enforcement organizations began monitoring his acts throughout the nation. As a result of these monitoring efforts, Lenny Bruce was arrested several times for charges stemming from obscenity.

Following these arrests, Lenny Bruce became a controversial individual and was routinely surveyed by law enforcement agencies. The increased scrutiny eventually led to an arrest in Philadelphia, where the local police department found Lenny Bruce in possession of drugs. Lenny Bruce was subsequently arrested for drug possession in Los Angeles, California nearly two years later.

In April of 1964, while performing in Greenwich Village, New York, undercover police detectives in the audience arrested Lenny Bruce for using various obscenities in his act. A three judge panel presided over the publicized trial that ensued from these arrests. Lenny Bruce and club owner, Howard Solomon, were both found guilty of obscenity on November 4, 1964. Lenny Bruce was sentenced on December 21st, 1964 to four months in a workhouse; Lenny Bruce was eventually set free on bail during the appeals process and died before the appeal was ruled.

Although Lenny Bruce was seemingly involved in perpetual legal battles, he garnered the support of several prominent entertainers as well as the general public, who viewed Lenny Bruce’s act as an exercise of free speech and thus a Constitutional right.

On December 23rd, 2003, Lenny Bruce was granted a posthumous pardon for his obscenity conviction. The pardon was issued by New York Governor George Pataki, 37 years after his death caused by a drug overdose.

Who is Leo Frank?

Leo Frank, born April 17, 1884, was a Jewish-American businessman who was lynched by a party of prominent citizens in Marietta Georgia. The vicious and hateful treatment of Leo Frank and his subsequent lynching turned a spotlight on anti-Semitism and hateful acts based on religious beliefs in the United States. The lynching of Leo Frank ultimately led to the founding of the Anti-Defamation League.

The Mary Phagan Murder:

Mary Phagan was a young girl who worked in a mill that was operated by her family. Phagan left school at the age of 10 to assume a job at the mill. After working in the mill, Phagan took a job with the National Pencil Company, where ran machines that inserted rubber erasers into the pencils’ metal bands.

Mary Phagan worked in the metal room, down the hall from Leo Frank’s office. Around noon on April 27th, the factory’s security guard went to the factory basement to use the facilities where he discovered the dead body of Mary Phagan. Her body was savagely beatn, and a seven foot strip of wrapping cord was tied around the young girl’s neck.

There were two notes found next to Phagan’s head. The notes, which were written in gibberish, were believed to a ploy to falsely accuse the black security guard who discovered the body.

When the guard was interviewed on suspicion of leaving the note, the authorities realized that the man was not the murdered. With no murder suspect in hand, the suspicion gradually fell on Leo Frank. The authorities believed that Frank was the culprit because he had developed a flirtatious relationship with Phagan and was extremely nervous when questioned.

The Leo Frank Trial:

On July 28, 1913 the murder trial commenced in a Georgia courtroom. Leo Frank was represented by eight lawyers. The prosecution’s predominant theory cited that Leo Frank was the murdered and the murder notes were dictated by Frank to an African-American janitor to effectively pin the crime on the man. The janitor, who was kept in custody and questioned by police, changed his story multiple times but finally claimed that Leo Frank promised him $200 dollars to write the notes.

Leo Frank’s defense team brought numerous witnesses who affirmed Frank’s alibi, which ultimately did not leave enough time for Leo Frank to commit the murder.

On August 25, Leo Frank was convicted of murder. Shocked by the verdict, Leo Frank appealed to the Georgia Supreme Court. The United States Supreme Court denied this appeal as a writ of habeas corpus sought by Frank’s lawyers. Months later, William Smith, the lawyer for the African American janitor announced that he believed that his client had murdered Phagan. A writ of error was issued, which allowed Leo Frank to appeal the U.S. Supreme Court to hear an appeal in April of 1915. On April 19, the appeal was denied on a 7-2 vote. Originally Leo Frank was sentenced to death, but after further review of the evidence the governor of Georgia commuted Frank’s sentence to life in prison.

The Lynching of Leo Frank:

A group of prominent men in Georgia organized themselves into a group called the “Knight of Mary Phagan”. The men recruited 25 to 28 other men, who possessed necessary skills, to effectively kidnap Leo Frank from prison in hopes of lynching him.

On the afternoon of August 16, eight cars arrived at the prison shortly before midnight. The team executed an elaborate plan to remove Leo Frank from prison; when they got to Leo Frank they handcuffed him and tied his ankles together. They removed Leo Frank from jail and hung him from a tree that faced Mary Phagan’s home. Several hundreds of people viewed the lynching for they assumed Leo Frank was the murderer.

Nearly seventy years later, in 1982, Alonzo Mann, who was Frank’s office boy, told the authorities that he had seen the janitor alone at the factory, carrying Phagan’s dead body.