Emily A. Bickford v. Matthew A. Bradeen

MAINE SUPREME JUDICIAL COURT Reporter of Decisions Decision: 2026 ME 94 Docket: Cum-25-29 Argued: November 13, 2025 Decided: September 1, 2026 Panel: STANFILL, C.J., and MEAD, CONNORS, LAWRENCE, DOUGLAS, and LIPEZ, JJ. EMILY A. BICKFORD v. MATTHEW A. BRADEEN STANFILL, C.J. [¶1] Emily A. Bickford appeals from an order of the District Court (Portland, Nofsinger, J.) modifying the parties’ parental rights and responsibilities and allocating to Matthew A. Bradeen final decision-making authority with respect to certain aspects of their child’s religious upbringing and medical care. Bickford argues that the court’s order violated her rights under the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. We disagree and affirm. I. BACKGROUND A. The 2013 Order of Shared Parental Rights and Responsibilities [¶2] Bickford and Bradeen are the parents of a child born in January 2013. Later that year, upon Bickford’s complaint, a Family Law Magistrate 2 (Najarian, M.) entered an agreed-upon order of shared parental rights and responsibilities. See 19-A M.R.S. § 1653(2)(A), (D) (2026). [¶3] “Shared parental rights and responsibilities,” as defined by statute and set out in the order, means that most or all aspects of a child’s welfare remain the joint responsibility and right of both parents, so that both parents retain equal parental rights and responsibilities, and both parents confer and make joint decisions regarding the child’s welfare. Matters pertaining to the child’s welfare include, but are not limited to, education, religious upbringing, medical, dental and mental health care, travel arrangements, child care arrangements and residence. See 19-A M.R.S. § 1501(5) (2026). In this case, the order specifically required the parties to • “confer with each other on a regular basis” and “notify each other of their child’s medical and dental exam results, significant events, minor injury or illness, teacher conference results, school meetings, recitals, meets, homework, tests, project deadlines[,] etc.”; • “be civil and courteous to [each] other, open-minded about [each] party’s suggestions and feelings regarding their child, and respectful of [each] party’s role in their child’s life”; and • “reach[] jointly, whenever possible,” any “major decision concerning their child,” with each party “conferring with the other and always placing the best interest of their child above any interest of their own.” The order also prohibited the parties from “do[ing] anything that could estrange their child from the other party or injure the child’s opinion about the other parent,” and it specifically admonished them to “refrain from making, or  3 tolerating from others, negative statements about the other parent, to or in front of their child.” B. The Parties’ Motions to Enforce and to Modify the 2013 Order [¶4] On September 17, 2021,1 Bradeen filed motions to enforce and to modify the 2013 order. See 19-A M.R.S. § 1657 (2026); M.R. Civ. P. 110A(b)(6)(A)-(B). In the motions, Bradeen alleged that Bickford had engaged the child in certain religious activities without his knowledge or assent, and he asked the court to allocate to him sole responsibility for the child’s religious upbringing. See 19-A M.R.S. § 1501(1). Shortly thereafter, Bickford filed cross-motions to enforce and to modify, alleging that Bradeen had attempted to deny the child religious training and prevent her church attendance and baptism. Bickford likewise requested an allocation of sole authority over and responsibility for the child’s religious upbringing. Finally, in an amended motion to modify, Bradeen made several new allegations and requested a general allocation of parental rights “as in [the child’s] best interest.” [¶5] Between 2021 and 2024, the parties participated in a series of mediation sessions, and they eventually resolved all their disagreements except for those pertaining to religion and healthcare. Other than a dispute regarding child support that was resolved in early 2014, there were no 1 proceedings between the parties from 2013 to 2021. 4 [¶6] On August 28 and 30, 2024, the court (Nofsinger, J.) held a two-day hearing regarding the allocation of religious and medical decision-making. The court heard testimony from the parties as well as from Janja Lalich, whom the parties stipulated to be an expert on “cults,” and Travis Carey, the pastor of Bickford’s church. At the close of the hearing, the court took the matter under advisement. In September 2024, before any decision was issued, Bradeen moved to reopen the record. The court granted Bradeen’s motion and took additional evidence on November 27, 2024. [¶7] On December 16, 2024, the court entered an order resolving the parties’ motions and modifying, in part, the allocation of their parental rights and responsibilities with respect to religious upbringing and medical care of the child. We first summarize the court’s factual findings and then describe its legal analysis and its allocation of certain parental rights to Bradeen. C. The Trial Court’s Factual Findings [¶8] In its final order, the court found the following facts, which are supported by competent evidence in the record. See, e.g., Light v. D’Amato, 2014 ME 134, ¶ 2, 105 A.3d 447. [¶9] Bickford started attending church services at Calvary Chapel Greater Portland in May 2021, bringing the child to multiple services per week.  5 Bickford did not inform Bradeen about the child’s attendance at the church.2 After Bradeen learned about the child’s participation in a church event, he asked Bickford for more information about the church and its teachings. Bickford told Bradeen that she and the child were attending Calvary Chapel, but she did not provide any other information. [¶10] As described by the pastor, Travis Carey, Calvary Chapel teaches the Bible “verse by verse, chapter by chapter.” This entails sermons that include, in Carey’s words, “quite vivid description[s]” of Hell: “There’s wailing and gnashing of teeth. There is burning and torment. The worm dieth not. Shame, eternal perpetual pain, and regret.” Carey also testified that he preaches about the “Second Coming of Christ,” which will involve “seven years of . . . pure hell on earth under the persecution of . . . the Antichrist” for those who have not “accept[ed] the terms of God.” [¶11] The child has experienced fear and anxiety associated with these teachings. The child has asked Bradeen a lot of questions about Heaven and Hell and about why Bradeen and his other child would not be in Heaven with her. The child has left notes around Bradeen’s house because she fears that the 2 Throughout this opinion, we capitalize religious terms and titles in accordance with The Chicago Manual of Style, ¶¶ 8.27, 8.51, 8.92-8.111 (18th ed. 2024). 6 Second Coming is approaching and that Bradeen will be left behind. The child has experienced panic attacks related to these topics. [¶12] Bradeen reached out to Bickford to express his concerns about the child’s anxiety and about Bickford’s decision to engage the child in religious activities without notifying or conferring with him. Bickford’s response was that she lives under God’s law, not the state’s law. Bickford does not believe the child is, or should be, experiencing any anxiety, because she and the child “just pray” and “give it to God.” [¶13] After Bradeen expressed his concerns, Bickford made other unilateral decisions about the child’s participation in church activities, and she took steps to hide the scope of the child’s involvement from Bradeen. For example, Bradeen learned that the child was scheduled to be baptized only when he was informed by a third party. Bradeen then called Bickford to ask about the baptism, and she placed him on speakerphone in front of the child. On another occasion, Bickford took the child out of school for a day, explaining to Bradeen that they were visiting the state capitol. Although this was partially true, she did not tell Bradeen that they were going to the state capitol to participate in a political rally with other church members. Most recently, Bickford allowed the child to stay overnight at someone else’s home as part of  7 a church-sponsored retreat for teenagers; the child, who was eleven years old at the time, was not allowed to have her cell phone. Bickford did not tell Bradeen about the retreat, and he learned about it only through the church’s Facebook page. Whenever Bradeen expressed a concern to Bickford about one of these events, she “double[d] down” by sending the child to Bradeen’s house with new clothing and accessories bearing religious images and messages. [¶14] On the evening of August 28, 2024, following the first day of the hearing on the motions to modify, Bickford took the child to a service at the church. Bickford knew in advance that Carey intended to discuss this litigation as part of the service, and she encouraged him to do so. At the opening of the service, Carey offered a six-and-a-half-minute-long prayer focused exclusively on this case.3 In the prayer, Carey • introduced these proceedings as a “custody battle,” with Bradeen on one “side” and Bickford on the other; • referenced the parties and the child by name almost thirty times; • described Bradeen as in need of salvation; • noted that the church had “been praying for [Bradeen] and his salvation for a long time”; 3 Bradeen viewed a recording of the prayer on the church’s Facebook page and created a screen recording of it; the recording was admitted in evidence at the hearing on November 27. See supra ¶¶ 6 and 7. 8 • stated that “[Bradeen’s] side” had retained an expert witness for the purpose of “find[ing] any dirt they can on Calvary Chapel, on [another pastor] and on myself, and on [the child’s] faith and [Bickford’s] faith”; • described these proceedings as not “really an attack on [Bickford], [the child], or Calvary Chapel,” but as “really an attack on God’s Word”; • asserted that the outcome of this case would depend on no more than “who appointed [the] judge” and “where this judge stands with God and His Word”; • described this case as an example of “the enemy seek[ing] to . . . crush and quench and strangle the church”; • stated that “[i]t’s hard to imagine, though, when you’re eleven years old and you’re dealing with the level of persecution that [the child] is dealing with”; and • prayed, regarding the outcome of this case, that God “bring to nothing the plans and the snares and the tricks of the enemy.” Bickford did not attempt to remove the child from the service at any point during the prayer, and she later affirmed her belief that it was “appropriate” for the child to sit through the service. The “tenor and content” of this prayer were not atypical for Carey, who consistently characterizes “those who challenge the church’s beliefs—including [Bradeen]—as the ‘enemy.’” [¶15] Although the child has enjoyed a strong, loving relationship with each of the parties, Bickford’s decisions regarding religion have endangered the child’s relationship with Bradeen. Bickford has exposed the child to messaging “that her father is going to burn and suffer for eternity, that he is persecuting  9 her, that he seeks to ‘dismantle’ her faith . . . , and that he is the enemy whose ‘tricks’ and ‘snares’ must be avoided,” and Bickford is unwilling to recognize, much less mitigate, the risk that these messages alienate the child from Bradeen or otherwise cause her harm. [¶16] Despite the court order requiring the parties to make joint decisions about the child’s religious upbringing, Bickford will not coparent with Bradeen on matters of religion. Bickford believes that the child’s relationship with God is more important than anything on earth, including the child’s relationship with Bradeen, and she testified that she would not do anything that she perceives to be “contrary to what God wants [her] to do,” even if it is required by a court order.4 The court found that Bickford has essentially abdicated her independent decision-making to the church. Bradeen, meanwhile, has taken a “measured approach” and “acted in a manner designed to protect [the child] from additional anxiety.” In his conversations with the child, Bradeen is intentionally vague about his concerns with Bickford’s church, and he avoids making any suggestion that Bickford has done anything inappropriate or “wrong.” Bradeen is better situated than Bickford is to 4Carey similarly testified that the Word of God supersedes the law of the land and of the courts, and he affirmed that he has counseled Bickford to continue bringing the child to the church over Bradeen’s objections. 10 evaluate the child’s participation in religious activities and to determine whether certain activities are in the child’s best interest. [¶17] In addition to their disagreements regarding religious upbringing, the parties have become unable to coparent regarding medical decision-making. The child used to be up to date on all recommended vaccinations, but recently Bickford has opposed vaccinating the child, including vaccines for COVID-19 and the flu, and she has refused to respond to Bradeen’s communications regarding the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine. Bickford has also opposed the child’s receipt of antibiotics. Bickford’s beliefs and decisions about healthcare are based on personal experiences, stories from friends, and her own online research, while Bradeen’s are based on recommendations from the child’s physicians and information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The court found that Bradeen’s approach to medical decision-making is more aligned with the child’s best interest than Bickford’s is. D. The Trial Court’s Legal Analysis and Allocation of Certain Parental Rights to Bradeen [¶18] The trial court used two different analytical frameworks to resolve the parties’ requests for allocated decision-making regarding the child’s healthcare and religious upbringing.  11 [¶19] With respect to healthcare, the court conducted a standard parental-rights analysis: It focused solely on the best interest of the child, and it applied the factors in 19-A M.R.S. § 1653(3) to determine whether it was in the child’s best interest to allocate the rights to make medical decisions between Bickford and Bradeen. See, e.g., In re Children of Richard E., 2020 ME 31, ¶ 30, 227 A.3d 159; Sloan v. Christianson, 2012 ME 72, ¶ 38, 43 A.3d 978. [¶20] With respect to religion, however, the court determined that it could not engage in a “plain application of 19-A M.R.S. § 1653(3).” Instead, the court interpreted our decision in Osier v. Osier, 410 A.2d 1027 (Me. 1980), to mean that it could allocate parental rights regarding religion only if the allocation would withstand strict scrutiny. In other words, the court believed that it could consider the child’s best interest only if it first determined that an allocation of religious decision-making would be “‘narrowly tailored’ to a ‘compelling governmental interest.’” (Citing Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U.S. 702, 721 (1997)). [¶21] Applying those frameworks, the court allocated elements of both medical and religious decision-making to Bradeen. [¶22] The court emphasized that the parties are unable to coparent and that “Bradeen has demonstrated a capacity and intention to make decisions in 12 a more reasonable, objective manner, focused on [the child’s] safety and wellbeing” than Bickford has. Accordingly, with respect to healthcare, the court ordered as follows: Both parties retain the right and responsibility to obtain care for [the child] in emergency situations and to make decisions regarding the administration of over-the-counter medications or first aid treatment. With respect to decisions significantly affecting [the child’s] medical health care, including but not limited to vaccinations and the administrations of any prescribed medication, [Bradeen] must first consult [Bickford] and consider her thoughts and opinions, but [he] is vested with final decision-making rights and responsibilities. [¶23] The court’s analysis concerning the parties’ decision-making on religion proceeded in three parts. First, the court concluded that there was a compelling state interest in protecting the child from “immediate and substantial psychological harm.” The court emphasized that Bickford had allowed the child to receive messages that alienate her from her father and cause her psychological harm, as evidenced by her anxiety and panic attacks, and that Bickford is unwilling to coparent with Bradeen or take any other steps to mitigate that harm. As the court put it, [T]here has been no showing of harm to [the child] associated with a belief system that is rooted in the Bible. Instead, the harm is associated with [Bickford’s] inability to co-parent with [Bradeen] on the topic matter of religion; the handing over of her right and responsibility to make decisions that are in [the child’s] best interests to Calvary Chapel; and the specific messaging that has  13 been delivered by Calvary Chapel, which divides [the child] from her father and characterizes him as the ‘enemy’ who poses a threat to her eternal salvation, thereby harming [the child] herself. Second, the court found that the parties are unable to coparent regarding the child’s religious upbringing and that Bradeen is better able to weigh the child’s participation in religious activities “objectively and with her safety and wellbeing in mind” than Bickford is. Finally, the court determined that an allocation of decision-making authority regarding religion would be both in the child’s best interest and narrowly tailored to protect her from harm. As a result, the court allocated sole parental rights and responsibilities to Bradeen regarding the child’s involvement with Calvary Chapel Greater Portland. Regarding the child’s participation in any other religious activity, the court ordered that the parties “shall continue to share parental rights and responsibilities and are required to jointly research the church, organization, or teachings and discuss whether [the child’s] participation and exposure [are] in her best interests,” and allocated final authority to Bradeen if they are unable to agree. [¶24] The trial court denied each of Bickford’s requests for post-judgment relief, and Bickford timely appealed. 14 II. DISCUSSION A. Allocation of Religious Decision-Making [¶25] Bickford asserts that the court’s allocation to Bradeen of decision-making regarding religion violated her parental rights under the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution.5 Specifically, she argues that (1) the court erred in concluding that it had a compelling state interest, because the only evidence of harm to the child was overly speculative, self-serving, or otherwise inadequate; (2) the court’s order was not narrowly tailored, because it was not the “least restrictive means” of protecting the child from harm; and (3) the court’s analysis of the child’s best interest was infected with hostility toward Bickford’s religion. 6 Because Bickford has not raised any arguments under the Maine Constitution, we address only 5 the U.S. Constitution. See, e.g., State v. Schlosser, 2025 ME 76, ¶ 25 n.8, 345 A.3d 25. We note, however, that the free-exercise rights provided by our state constitution may be broader than those provided by the federal constitution. See, e.g., Fortin v. Roman Cath. Bishop of Portland, 2005 ME 57, ¶¶ 55-57, 871 A.2d 1208. See generally Joshua D. Dunlap, A Venerable Bulwark: Reaffirming the Primacy Approach to Interpreting Maine's Free Exercise Clause, 73 Me. L. Rev. 1 (2021); Tinkle, The Maine State Constitution 30-32 (2d ed. 2013). 6 Bickford also asserts that the court ran afoul of the U.S. Supreme Court’s decisions in Kennedy v. Bremerton School District, 597 U.S. 507 (2022), and Good News Club v. Milford Central School, 533 U.S. 98 (2001), by awarding Bradeen a “modified heckler’s veto” over the child’s religious upbringing. But the modified heckler’s veto described by the Court in those cases pertained to arguments—based on the now-abandoned Lemon test—that children and other observers would perceive certain private speech as “endorsed” by public schools in violation of the Establishment Clause. See Kennedy, 597 U.S. at 533-34; Good News Club, 533 U.S. at 119. Thus, the modified-heckler’s-veto doctrine is wholly irrelevant to the issues in this case, and we need not discuss it further.  15 [¶26] Our discussion proceeds as follows. We first address the proper analytical framework for Bickford’s claims, and we determine that the court erred by applying strict scrutiny. We instead conclude that courts may always use the best-interest standard to allocate parental rights between two parents, and that the Constitution protects the religious rights of parents by prohibiting religious bias or hostility from influencing a court’s best-interest analysis. Thus, we need not resolve Bickford’s first two arguments, both of which are specific to strict scrutiny, and we close our discussion by addressing her claim of religious hostility. 1. Strict scrutiny does not apply to an allocation of parental rights between a child’s parents. [¶27] Bickford invokes her fundamental constitutional right to direct the religious upbringing of the child, arguing that any restriction on that right must be subject to strict scrutiny. The trial court agreed with Bickford and—reading our decision in Osier, 410 A.2d at 1029-31, as requiring it to deviate from a “plain application of 19-A M.R.S. § 1653(3)”—believed that it could allocate religious decision-making according to the child’s best interest only if it first determined that such an allocation would withstand strict scrutiny. Reviewing the court’s legal determinations de novo, see, e.g., Light, 2014 ME 134, ¶ 17, 105 16 A.3d 447, we disagree, and we instead conclude that strict scrutiny does not apply to allocations of parental rights between a child’s parents. [¶28] Judicial decisions regarding parental rights and responsibilities generally must be based on “the best interest of the child.” 19-A M.R.S. § 1653(3); see, e.g., Sloan, 2012 ME 72, ¶ 38, 43 A.3d 978 (“[T]he overriding consideration is whether the modification sought is in the best interest of the child, as determined pursuant to the factors stated in [section] 1653(3).”). Bickford argues that strict scrutiny must govern the best-interest analysis whenever a parental rights order implicates a parent’s religion. Cf. Conlogue v. Conlogue, 2006 ME 12, ¶ 17, 890 A.2d 691 (explaining that a child’s best interest does not constitute a compelling state interest for the purposes of a strict scrutiny analysis). Neither the Constitution nor our case law demands such a departure. [¶29] Parents have a fundamental constitutional right to direct the upbringing of their children, including in matters of religion.7 See, e.g., 7Formally, Bickford invokes her “fundamental right to direct the religious upbringing of her minor child” under both the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment and the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. For two reasons, however, we analyze her free-exercise and due-process claims together rather than separately. First, a parent’s free-exercise and due-process interests “overlap and inform each other,” so courts—including this Court and the U.S. Supreme Court—have “sensibly considered [them] together.” Parker v. Hurley, 514 F.3d 87, 98-99 & n.13 (1st Cir. 2008); see, e.g., Osier, 410 A.2d at 1029-32; Mahmoud v. Taylor, 606 U.S. 522, 546-50 (2025); Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, 213-14 (1972). Second, Bickford has not developed any arguments specific to either free exercise or due process—in fact, she asserts that her free-exercise and  17 Mahmoud v. Taylor, 606 U.S. 522, 546-47 (2025); Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, 214 (1972); Osier, 410 A.2d at 1029. Importantly, however, the parents share that right. See 19-A M.R.S. § 1651 (2026) (“[P]arents are the joint natural guardians of their minor children . . . . Neither parent has any rights paramount to the rights of the other with reference to any matter affecting their children.”). There are many rights and responsibilities associated with parenting, and a court may order some or all of them to be shared or allocated between a child’s parents. See 19-A M.R.S. §§ 1501(1), (5), 1653(2)(D)(1) (2026).8 An allocation of rights to one parent inherently limits the authority of the other but does not necessarily infringe upon the constitutional rights of either parent. [¶30] “A judgment respecting parental rights and responsibilities does not implicate a parent’s fundamental right to parent unless it constitutes a state intrusion on that right.” Mills v. Fleming, 2017 ME 144, ¶ 7, 166 A.3d 1012 due-process claims “mirror[]” one another and succeed “for the same reasons.” Thus, even if a standalone free-exercise or due-process claim is possible in theory, Bickford has not sufficiently developed one here. See, e.g., Williamson v. Finlay, 2023 ME 78, ¶ 6, 306 A.3d 630. 8 Title 19-A M.R.S. § 1501(1) provides: Responsibilities [for the various aspects of a child’s welfare] may be divided exclusively or proportionately. Aspects of a child’s welfare for which responsibility may be divided include primary physical residence, parent-child contact, support, education, medical and dental care, religious upbringing, travel boundaries and expenses and any other aspect of parental rights and responsibilities. A parent allocated responsibility for a certain aspect of a child’s welfare may be required to inform the other parent of major changes in that aspect. 18 (emphasis added) (citing Rideout v. Riendeau, 2000 ME 198, ¶ 20, 761 A.2d 291). As we have held across a variety of contexts, a judicial decision that allocates authority between two parents—rather than to a third party or to the State—“is not a state intrusion into, and does not infringe upon, [the parents’] shared right to make decisions concerning their children.” Id. ¶ 9; see, e.g., Seymour v. Seymour, 2021 ME 60, ¶ 7, n.5, 263 A.3d 1079 (no state intrusion on a father’s rights when a court “allocated final, binding decision-making on educational and medical matters to [the mother]”); Klein v. Klein, 2019 ME 85, ¶¶ 3, 8 n.2, 208 A.3d 802 (no state intrusion on a father’s rights when a court ordered that the parties share parental rights and responsibilities but allocated final decision-making to the mother); Mills, 2017 ME 144, ¶¶ 6-12, 166 A.3d 1012 (no state intrusion on a mother’s rights when a court required her to facilitate her children’s participation in an extracurricular activity preferred by the father); cf., e.g., Martin v. MacMahan, 2021 ME 62, ¶ 25, 264 A.3d 1224 (state intrusion on parents’ rights when a third party seeks to obtain parental rights pursuant to the de facto parentage statute); In re Scott S., 2001 ME 114, ¶ 20-21, 775 A.2d 1144 (state intrusion on parents’ rights when the State itself seeks to restrict or terminate the parents’ parental rights); Rideout, 2000 ME 198,  19 ¶ 21-22, 761 A.2d 291 (state intrusion on parents’ rights when a third party seeks to obtain visitation rights pursuant to the grandparent-visitation statute). [¶31] The rationale of our prior decisions regarding the allocation of parental rights applies no less to religious decision-making than to any other aspect of those rights: “When fit parents, who are parenting separately, cannot agree on an aspect of their shared parenting responsibilities, and cannot agree on a nonlitigation-based method of resolving that dispute, the court must undertake its responsibility to adjudicate the facts and provide a resolution to the dispute.” Mills, 2017 ME 144, ¶ 10, 166 A.3d 1012. In such a case, the court’s “necessary . . . resolution” of the parental dispute “does not substitute the court’s judgment for that of the parents; it merely reflects court resolution of a dispute that the parents themselves could not resolve.” Id. ¶ 9. Accordingly, a court order that resolves a dispute between two parents according to the best interest of the child “does not violate the constitutional rights of either parent,” id. ¶ 10, regardless whether the dispute pertains to education, healthcare, religion, or any other aspect of the child’s upbringing. [¶32] Contrary to Bickford’s argument and the trial court’s conclusion, our 1980 decision in Osier does not require us to apply a different legal standard in cases that implicate parental rights regarding religion. There, we 20 explained that when a court makes a “custody determination” between two parents, it should first determine “the child’s best interest, without giving any consideration to either parent’s religious practices, in order to ascertain which of them is the preferred custodial parent.” Osier, 410 A.2d at 1028-29 (emphasis omitted). We stated that if the court’s best-interest analysis yielded a preference for the parent whose religious practices were at issue, the court could restrict that parent’s rights only if the restrictions satisfied a demanding standard. Id. at 1029-31. Although we did not use the phrase “strict scrutiny,” we said, If and only if the court is satisfied that an immediate and substantial threat to the child’s well-being is posed by the religious practice in question, need it proceed to the second stage of the inquiry, requiring it to engage in an explicit balancing of the conflicting interests. In fashioning the appropriate order, the court should adopt a means of protecting the best interests of the child that makes the least possible intrusion upon the constitutionally protected interests of the parent. Id. at 1031 (emphasis and footnote omitted). Two points bear upon the reasons for these statements and limit them to the unique circumstances in Osier. [¶33] First, Osier was decided in 1980, when our statutes and cases spoke in terms of “custody.” See 19 M.R.S.A. § 752 (Supp. 1979); Sheldon v. Sheldon, 423 A.2d 943, 945 (Me. 1980); cf. In re Kidder, 541 A.2d 630, 631 (Me. 1988) (describing, in 1988, “recent statutory changes that provide for a division  21 of decision-making responsibilities”). In contrast to the ability of modern courts to parse parental rights and responsibilities, older “custody determinations” were essentially binary: the court would, according to its view of the child’s best interest, select a “custodial parent” who would enjoy the full panoply of parental rights and responsibilities, and a “noncustodial parent” who would receive, at most, rights to visitation.9 See, e.g., Sheldon, 423 A.2d at 944-45; Dustin v. Belanger, 429 A.2d 212, 212-13 (Me. 1981); Harmon v. Emerson, 425 A.2d 978, 979 (Me. 1981). See generally Anne Adams Rabbino, Note, Joint Custody Awards: Toward the Development of Judicial Standards, 48 Fordham L. Rev. 105, 105-06, 110-11 (1979); Developments in the Law—The 9 As Judge Levy explains in his treatise, The phrase “parental rights and responsibilities” supersedes the word and concept of “custody” as the principal focus for the determination of issues associated with the parenting of minor children of divorced parents. It recognizes that the post-divorce parenting of a minor child is a sufficiently complex endeavor as to justify the consideration of every significant aspect of child-rearing when seeking to craft an arrangement that will serve the child’s best interest. “Parental rights and responsibilities” requires that the judicial process include a close examination of the present circumstances and future needs of a minor child, and not just a limited examination of which parent is better suited to accept the physical custody of the child. “Custody” was superseded by “parental rights and responsibilities” due, in part, to the belief that the new terminology will serve to dissipate the antagonism, polarization, confusion, and opportunity for conflict that are often engendered when child-rearing is assigned to a custodian and a visitor, or to joint custodians without elaboration. Levy, Maine Family Law § 6.1 at 6-3 (8th ed. 2013) (alterations, footnotes, and quotation marks omitted). 22 Constitution and the Family, 93 Harv. L. Rev. 1156, 1313-50 (1980). It was from this legal context that our decision in Osier emerged. [¶34] Second, the language quoted above was dictum. The mother in Osier was a Jehovah’s Witness who, as part of her religious beliefs, would not permit the child to receive a blood transfusion even if necessary to save his life. Osier, 410 A.2d at 1028-29. The trial court awarded custody to the father on that basis alone, even though there was no evidence “that the mother’s religious practice posed an immediate and substantial threat” to “a normal and active 8-year-old.” Id. at 1029 & n.3, 1031 & n.7. We agreed with the mother that the court had too hastily “delve[d] into a constitutionally sensitive area” surrounding her religious beliefs, and we remanded to the trial court to engage in a fact-based best-interest analysis, which it had not done. Id. at 1029, 1032. Thus, the remainder of our opinion—including our discussion of what a court might do when it cannot ‘avoid’ a parent’s religion—was “not necessary to the decision of the case,” Dupuis v. Roman Cath. Bishop of Portland, 2025 ME 6, ¶ 14, 331 A.3d 294 (quotation marks omitted), and is not binding. [¶35] Whatever Osier’s dictum may have meant in 1980, its apparent invocation of strict scrutiny does not govern the resolution of parental rights disputes today, when parental rights and responsibilities must be allocated in  23 whatever fashion best serves the best interest of the child. 10 See, e.g., Quirion v. Veilleux, 2013 ME 50, ¶ 6, 65 A.3d 1287; State v. Aboda, 2010 ME 125, ¶ 13 n.4, 8 A.3d 719. [¶36] A court order allocating authority between two parents does not “intru[de] on” the parents’ shared right to direct the upbringing of their child. See, e.g., Mills, 2017 ME 144, ¶¶ 7-10, 166 A.3d 1012. To the extent Osier suggests that a different principle must govern cases implicating a parent’s religion, we clarify that its dictum is unpersuasive. Today, we join other courts in concluding that the Constitution does not prohibit a court from allocating authority between two parents according to the best interest of the child, regardless whether the court’s allocation implicates the religious beliefs of one parent or the other. See, e.g., In re Kurowski, 20 A.3d 306, 317 (N.H. 2011) (“Because the parents in this case reached an impasse on the exercise of their respective parenting rights, the trial court properly utilized the best interests standard to resolve the dispute. The trial court’s decision is not subject to strict scrutiny review merely because the case involves the fundamental parental 10 We note that we have cited Osier only rarely, and never to justify the application of strict scrutiny to an order of parental rights and responsibilities. See, e.g., Guardianship of Jewel M., 2010 ME 80, ¶ 6, 2 A.3d 301; Smith v. Rideout, 2010 ME 69, ¶ 13, 1 A.3d 441; Town of Burlington v. Hosp. Admin. Dist. No. 1, 2001 ME 59, ¶ 19, 769 A.2d 857; Absher v. LaCombe, 432 A.2d 1241, 1243 (Me. 1981); see also Seymour, 2021 ME 60, n.5, 263 A.3d 1079 (alluding to the tension between Osier’s dictum and our more recent decisions on parental rights and responsibilities). 24 right to make decisions for [the] daughter’s education and the parents’ divergent religious convictions.”); Kelley v. Kelley, 535 P.3d 1147, 1151 (Nev. 2023); Young v. Holmes, 295 S.W.3d 144, 146-47 (Ky. Ct. App. 2009); Yordy v. Osterman, 149 P.3d 874, 875-76 (Kan. Ct. App. 2007); see also Dutchess v. Dutch, No. S-18109, 2022 WL 701866, at *2-3 (Alaska Mar. 9, 2022) (suggesting that strict scrutiny does not apply but declining to resolve that question because the appellant’s claim failed either way).11 2. Although the court erroneously applied strict scrutiny, it ultimately conducted a full best-interest analysis. [¶37] The trial court here mistakenly believed that it could allocate religious parental rights according to the child’s best interest only if it first concluded that doing so was narrowly tailored to protecting the child from 11 We recognize that some state courts have concluded otherwise and held that certain allocations of religious authority must be subject to strict scrutiny. See Kingston v. Kingston, 532 P.3d 958, 971 (Utah 2022) (“[W]hile the best interests of the child standard is of primary importance when allocating decision-making authority as to major decisions, strict scrutiny applies to court orders that go beyond this allocation to restrict a parent’s fundamental right to encourage his or her children in the practice of religion.”); In re Marriage of McSoud, 131 P.3d 1208, 1217 (Colo. App. 2006) (“To the extent that . . . [a] court goes beyond allocating sole decision making over the child’s religious upbringing and otherwise restricts either parent’s right to expose the child to that parent’s religious beliefs or to practice that parent’s religion, the court must find a compelling state interest in the form of avoiding su