McDonald v. United States

United States Court of Appeals For the First Circuit No. 21-1114 MATTHEW MCDONALD, Petitioner, Appellant, v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, Respondent, Appellee. APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE [Hon. Steven J. McAuliffe, U.S. District Judge] Before Gelpí, Thompson, and Dunlap, Circuit Judges. Jane Elizabeth Lee for appellant. Alexander S. Chen, Assistant United States Attorney, with whom Erin Creegan, United States Attorney, was on brief, for appellee. August 28, 2026  THOMPSON, Circuit Judge. Prologue Matthew McDonald contests the district judge's denial of relief requested under 28 U.S.C. § 2255, a statute — occasionally called the federal habeas statute — that federal prisoners use to collaterally attack federal convictions and sentences. See generally Collateral Attack, Black's Law Dictionary (12th ed. 2024) (describing "collateral attack" as "[a]n attack on a judgment in a proceeding other than a direct appeal"). He wants us to vacate his conviction for using a firearm during a crime of violence and remand for a full resentencing. Read on to see why we can't. Case Background We'll guide you through the need-to-knows (which aren't in real dispute), omitting any detail not necessary to our analysis. 1 McDonald robbed banks and armored cars in the 1990s with five others, including a man named Anthony Shea (we'll say more about Shea later). They regularly had guns on them. Vicious doesn't begin to describe some of their rampaging. Don't believe us? Consider this. Two armored car guards died execution-style in a particularly gruesome incident in Hudson, New Hampshire - 2 - (bullets to the head as one guard begged for his life, for example). That years-long criminal rampage ended with McDonald's arrest — which led to his trial, which led to his convictions and sentences.1 Let's talk a bit about some of his convictions and sentences (given the starring role they play in today's controversy). The list of McDonald's convictions from that trial includes armed bank robbery, carjacking, Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy, and Hobbs Act robbery ("Hobbs Act" is a popular nickname for a statute outlawing interstate robbery). See 18 U.S.C. §§ 371, 1951, 2113(d), 2119. The list also includes gun possession by a felon and by a drug user. See id. §§ 922(g)(1), (g)(3).2 And the list includes aiding and abetting the use of a 1 His co-criminals shared a similar fate (one pled guilty before trial). But for now we focus on him. A quick heads-up. Our opinion has lots of footnotes. Not everyone might love that. Some, for example, might agree with Judge Mikva's quip that "[i]f God had intended the use of footnotes to be a norm, He would have put our eyes in vertically instead of horizontally." Abner J. Mikva, Law Reviews, Judicial Opinions, and Their Relationship to Writing, 30 Stetson L. Rev. 521, 524-25 (2000). But "[f]ootnotes often have a useful purpose," as Judge Leval has noted. Interviews with United States Court of Appeals Judges, Judge Pierre N. Leval, 15 Scribes J. Legal Writing 35, 49 (2013). And this case is another good example. 2 The Supreme Court recently held § 922(g)(3) invalid as applied to a defendant who "use[d] marijuana a few times a week" and wasn't currently dangerous — though the Court left open questions about bans on addicts or those presently under the - 3 - gun during a violent crime. See id. § 924(c).3 The judge had told the jury that armed bank robbery, Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy, and Hobbs Act robbery "are all" violent crimes for the gun-use- during-a-violent-crime offense. But the jury's verdict form doesn't show which crime supported the gun-use-during-a-violent- crime conviction. A couple things stand out from sentencing. One involves the judge's giving McDonald a life term based on the judge's preponderance finding that deaths occurred. (As we'll also see, the Supreme Court has altered this standard — requiring that influence (among other questions). United States v. Hemani, 146 S. Ct. 1677, 1693-94 (2026). Neither side here identifies any issues along those lines. So we have nothing more to say about that case. 3Aiding and abetting isn't a separate federal crime but is an alternative theory of liability and is implicit in all indictments. See United States v. Sanchez, 917 F.2d 607, 611 (1st Cir. 1990). An aider and abettor is punishable as a principal. See 18 U.S.C. § 2. Section 924(c) makes it a crime to use a gun when committing a "crime of violence." See id. § 924(c)(1)(A). At the time of trial, the statute defined "crime of violence" as any felony that • "(A) has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against the person . . . of another" (the force clause); or • "(B) . . . by its nature, involves a substantial risk that physical force against the person . . . of another may be used in the course of committing the offense" (the residual clause). Id. § 924(c)(3). (As we'll see, the Supreme Court has pruned back this statute.) - 4 - circumstances in aggravation be found by a jury, not a judge, and be established beyond a reasonable doubt, not by a preponderance.) Another involves the judge's applying a sentencing enhancement under the Armed Career Criminal Act — "ACCA," for short. ACCA increases sentences of (among others) felons in unlawful possession of a gun if they have at least three prior convictions for "a violent felony." Using one of ACCA's then-definitions of "violent felony" — the "residual clause" — the judge ruled that McDonald's earlier Massachusetts convictions for armed robbery, manslaughter, and assault and battery with a dangerous weapon counted as ACCA-predicate offenses.4 We affirmed McDonald's convictions and (with one minor exception not relevant here) affirmed his sentences. United States v. Shea, 211 F.3d 658, 676 (1st Cir. 2000). 4At the time of sentencing, ACCA defined a "violent felony" as "any crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year" that • "(i) has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against the person of another" (the force clause); or • "(ii) is burglary, arson, or extortion, involves use of explosives" (the enumerated-crimes clause); or • "otherwise involves conduct that presents a serious potential risk of physical injury to another" (the residual clause). Id. § 924(e)(2)(B). (As we'll see as well, the Supreme Court has trimmed back this statute too.) - 5 -  2 Jumping forward a few years, McDonald asked us for leave to file a "successive" § 2255 motion in the district court (he had filed other such motions before).5 He essentially made two arguments — the first challenging the ACCA-enhanced life sentence on the gun-possession-by-a-felon conviction and the second challenging the gun-use-during-a-violent-crime conviction. Noting that Johnson v. United States, 576 U.S. 591 (2015), had invalidated ACCA's residual clause as unconstitutionally vague — a ruling Welch v. United States, 578 U.S. 120 (2016), made retroactive — he argued that the life term imposed after the judge's ACCA decision couldn't stand. And confident that Johnson would lead to the demise of § 924(c)'s similar residual clause, he also argued that his gun-use-during-a-violent-crime conviction couldn't stand either. Ruling that he had "prima facie[ly] show[n]" that his motion turned on a new and retroactive rule set forth in Johnson 5"A second or successive motion must be certified . . . by a panel of the appropriate court of appeals to contain . . . a new rule of constitutional law, made retroactive to cases on collateral review by the Supreme Court, that was previously unavailable." 28 U.S.C. § 2255(h)(2). - 6 - regarding "the ACCA [life] sentence," a motions panel of this court "granted" McDonald "leave to file a successive habeas" petition. Back in the district court, the judge — after considering the parties' arguments — held that McDonald didn't have the requisite ACCA predicates after Johnson.6 And having rightly recognized that error, the judge then had the discretion to pick one of several remedies. See 28 U.S.C. § 2255(b). The judge could, for example (and as specifically relevant here), "resentence" him or "correct" his sentence "as may appear appropriate" (the other possible remedies are a "discharge" from prison or a "grant" of "a new trial"). See id. So the judge went on. McDonald "is also serving an unchallenged concurrent life sentence for carjacking," the judge wrote. And, the judge added, because "neither his term, nor the conditions of his imprisonment, will change" McDonald "will remain in prison, serving a life sentence." So despite McDonald's request for a full resentencing under the "sentencing-package doctrine," the judge opted to correct matters by tossing the ACCA-enhanced life sentence on the gun-possession-by-a-felon conviction and giving him 120 months 6"[T]he court of appeals for this circuit," the judge wrote, "authoritatively" held after McDonald's sentencing "that a Massachusetts [a]rmed [r]obbery conviction does not qualify as a predicate violent felony under . . . ACCA." And given that reality, the judge added, "it [wa]s unnecessary to examine his other convictions with respect to . . . ACCA." - 7 - instead — "the low end of the correctly calculated applicable [g]uideline[s] [s]entencing [r]ange" (to repeat for emphasis, the sentences on the other counts — including the life sentence for carjacking — didn't change).7 The judge's attention then shifted to McDonald's Johnson-based attack on the gun-use-during-a-violent-crime conviction — an attack that went like this. Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy could be considered a crime-of-violence predicate only under § 924(c)'s residual clause, McDonald said. But, he added, this clause should be held unconstitutional under Johnson's reasoning. And the jury could've relied on that invalid predicate in reaching its general verdict for the gun-use-during-a-violent- crime conviction, or so he claimed. The judge, however, elected to stay that challenge pending our decision "in Rawnsley v. United States" — a case, the judge wrote, that set up the issue of whether "Johnson . . . require[s] invalidation of § 924(c)'s residual clause." The sentencing-package doctrine "typically" comes into play 7 in cases "involv[ing] multicount indictments and a successful attack by a defendant on some but not all of the counts of conviction." See Greenlaw v. United States, 554 U.S. 237, 253 (2008). The basic idea is that when a conviction on one or more counts is jettisoned, the district court should be free to redo the sentencing package to make sure the overall sentence remains correct given all the circumstances. See Pepper v. United States, 562 U.S. 476, 507 (2011). - 8 -  Meanwhile, the judge eventually entered an amended judgment in McDonald's criminal case to reflect the purging of the ACCA enhancement (i.e., the life-to-120-months change) — from which he didn't appeal.8 Days after the amended judgment's entry, we affirmed the district court in Rawnsley because "various federal offenses, including potentially the offense(s) anchoring [Rawnsley's] § 924(c) conviction(s)," met "the force clause" and thus made "any challenge to the residual clause . . . irrelevant." The Supreme Court later issued United States v. Davis, 588 U.S. 445 (2019), extending Johnson's reasoning in striking down § 924(c)'s residual clause for vagueness. See id. at 451- 53, 470. Acting on McDonald's renewed motion to vacate his gun- use-during-a-violent-crime conviction (filed on the heels of Davis), the judge — citing Davis — ruled that without the residual clause, Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy doesn't qualify as a "crime of violence" for § 924(c) purposes.9 But the Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy count (an invalid predicate) and the Hobbs Act robbery Perhaps an obvious point, but the parties treat what the 8 judge did as a sentence correction rather than a resentencing. And we have no reason to second-guess that assessment. The government doesn't dispute that Hobbs Act robbery 9 conspiracy isn't a valid predicate anymore after Davis. See Shea, 168 F.4th at 66 (making that same point). - 9 - count (a valid predicate) "were factually and pragmatically coextensive." Just think about it, said the judge. It makes zero sense that jurors could find McDonald "used a firearm in the conspiracy" to rob the armored car "but not the robbery" of the armored car. All of which means, the judge continued, that "the jury instructions referencing the invalid predicate offense, while erroneous, [were] harmless." Declining to grant him a certificate of appealability — referred to as a "COA" — the judge finally entered judgment in McDonald's § 2255 proceeding capturing the order's terms. A few words about COAs, legal permission slips that let federal prisoners contest the denial of § 2255 motions. A court of appeals can't review "the final order in a proceeding under section 2255" unless a circuit justice or judge issues a COA. 28 U.S.C. § 2253(c)(1)(B). And a COA won't issue absent "a substantial showing of the denial of a constitutional right." Id. § 2253(c)(2). That standard differs a bit depending on the situation. If the district court denied relief on the merits, the prisoner must show "that reasonable jurists would find the . . . court's assessment of the constitutional claims debatable or wrong" or "that the issues presented" are "'adequate to deserve encouragement to proceed further.'" Slack v. McDaniel, 529 U.S. 473, 484 (2000) (quoting Barefoot v. Estelle, 463 U.S. - 10 - 880, 893 n.4 (1983)). But if the district court denied relief on procedural grounds, the prisoner must show that "jurists of reason would" debate both the "procedural ruling" and the underlying "constitutional" claim. Id.10 Now back to our case. McDonald then filed a notice of appeal and asked us for a COA. With that request pending, he moved us to remand for "plenary resentencing" in the underlying criminal case. He premised that motion on the judge's handling of Shea's § 2255 habeas petition. While the judge had refused McDonald's full-resentencing request, the judge had granted Shea's identical request following the then-recently decide case of Concepcion v. United States, 597 U.S. 481 (2022). We'll have more to say about Shea and Concepcion shortly. 10 Before Congress amended § 2253(c)(2) in 1996, a prisoner had to make "a substantial showing of the denial of a federal right." See Slack, 529 U.S. at 480 (emphasis added) (quoting Barefoot, 463 U.S. at 893). The amendment swapped out the word "federal" for the narrower word "constitutional." See id. at 481. And we must take "due note" of that "substitution." See id. at 483. See generally Mullin v. Al Otro Lado, 146 S. Ct. 2079, 2092 (2026) (stating that Congress's replacing one phrase for another suggests that it understood the terms to have different meanings, adding that courts "presume" that Congress "'intends the change to have real and substantial effect'" (quoting Van Buren v. United States, 593 U.S. 374, 393 (2021))); Conn. Nat'l Bank v. Germain, 503 U.S. 249, 253-54 (1992) (remarking that courts assume "that [Congress] says in a statute what it says and means in a statute what it says there"). - 11 -  After the government objected to McDonald's COA and remand motions, our motions panel ultimately granted him a COA limited to this specific issue: "whether the district court properly resolved [his] Davis challenge to" his gun-use-during-a- violent-crime conviction. Lest there be any doubt, and in response to his appellate filings, the panel reinforced the point by saying that it didn't "certify any other question for appeal at that time." But the panel did tell the parties to "brief[]" the following questions: • "whether this appeal encompasses issues raised in [his] request for a remand for full resentencing, given that [he] has not filed a notice of appeal from the amended criminal judgment and has appealed only from the district court's final habeas judgment"; • "whether a COA is required . . . for this court to reach the merits of any challenges to the district court's choice of habeas remedy (here, the decision not to conduct plenary resentencing)"; and • "whether and to what extent . . . Concepcion [the opinion championed in his remand request, along with Davis] . . . might apply to § 2255 proceedings entailing a partial grant of relief." - 12 - The panel specifically left it for us — "the merits panel" — to decide "the proper scope of the appeal." Standards of Review We review the denial of a § 2255 motion de novo (i.e., afresh) but also for harmless error. See, e.g., Ortiz-Graulau v. United States, 756 F.3d 12, 16-17, 20 (1st Cir. 2014). An error is harmless on collateral review if it didn't have a "substantial and injurious effect or influence" on "the jury's verdict." See id. at 20 (quoting Brecht v. Abrahamson, 507 U.S. 619, 638 (1993)). But if "the record is so evenly balanced that a conscientious judge is in grave doubt" about whether the error satisfies that standard, the prisoner wins. See O'Neal v. McAninch, 513 U.S. 432, 437 (1995); see also Davis v. Ayala, 576 U.S. 257, 276-77 (2015); Munyenyezi v. United States, 989 F.3d 161, 167-68 (1st Cir. 2021). Know too that the grave-doubt standard "requires much more than a 'reasonable possibility' that the" proceeding's outcome "would have been different." Ayala, 576 U.S. at 276 (quoting Brecht, 507 U.S. at 637). Arguments and Analysis Which brings us to McDonald's appellate arguments. They fall into two general groups. But nothing he says is a difference- - 13 - maker, ultimately (FYI, much of our thinking matches the government's). 1 The first argument grouping involves McDonald's claim that we must throw out his gun-use-during-a-violent-crime conviction. The claim runs as follows. After Davis — a decision that he says has retroactive effect (as the government agrees) — Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy isn't a predicate "crime of violence" under § 924(c) (as the government also agrees). So he argues that the judge stumbled at trial by giving a contrary jury instruction (as the government further agrees). Then he says that to decipher whether the jury based its verdict on an invalid predicate (Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy) or a valid one (Hobbs Act robbery, for instance), the judge had to apply what's known as the "categorical approach" (this is where the parties' agreement ends) in considering his § 2255 motion — a methodology that doesn't turn on the case's facts.11 But he notes that the judge skipped that The categorical approach is "immensely complicated," see 11 United States v. Starks, 861 F.3d 306, 324 (1st Cir. 2017), making it notoriously "difficult to apply," see United States v. Faust, 853 F.3d 39, 66 (1st Cir. 2017) (Barron, J., concurring). But generally, that approach requires us to look at the elements of the prior crimes — not the particular facts behind those convictions. See Mathis v. United States, 579 U.S. 500, 504 (2016). That said, we needn't go further into the approach's - 14 - step and instead applied the harmless-error standard — a test that does turn on the case's facts. And he insists that this misstep justifies reversal. Unluckily for McDonald, his harmless-error challenge butts up against Shea v. United States, 168 F.4th 60 (1st Cir. 2026) — an opinion released after the briefing in this case (the government dutifully mentioned Shea in a Fed. R. App. P. 28(j) letter). a Some background on Shea is necessary. A district judge — the same one who handled McDonald's case — issued an order giving Shea a split decision on his § 2255 motion. The judge ruled "that under . . . Johnson . . ., Shea is entitled to relief with respect to the sentences imposed for his two convictions on felon (prohibited person) in possession of a firearm charges," because "those sentences rested upon a now incorrect determination of his status as an armed career criminal." See Shea v. United States, No. 19-cv-1006, 2021 WL 5397419, at *1 (D.N.H. Nov. 17, 2021) (emphasis added). "Those sentences," the judge added, "will be corrected by reducing them to the low end of the properly calculated applicable" guidelines sentencing range. specifics. And that's because McDonald's categorical approach- based argument fails, as we're about to see. - 15 - Id. But the judge rejected his Davis-based bid to undo his gun- use-during-a-violent-crime convictions. Id. at *1-2. According to the judge, those convictions rested on a valid predicate (Hobbs Act robbery) that was "interrelated and coextensive" with the invalid predicate (Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy) — making the jury-instruction error on the invalid predicate "harmless." See id. at *2. The judge then denied Shea a COA. Id. Shea sought to appeal the denial of his § 2255 motion (his notice of appeal said that "[h]e intend[ed] to apply for the issuance of . . . a [COA] with" us). Days later, Shea — correctly noting that he wasn't an "armed career criminal" under ACCA but a "career offender" under the sentencing guidelines — moved the district judge to "amend [the] order so that it vacates" the armed-career-criminal designation and "state[s] whether the [judge] will hold a resentencing hearing." And around the same time we ordered him to request a COA from us. We needn't get into the career-offender weeds. It's enough to note the following. Ruling on Shea's "assented-to motion" — in which the government agreed to a resentencing — the judge vacated the prior order and scheduled a status conference "to discuss the effect of" the Supreme Court's then-recent "Concepcion" opinion "on this case" (though the judge saw no reason - 16 - to "revisit[] or change[]" the analysis on "§ 924(c)" convictions, i.e., the gun-use-during-a-violent-crime convictions).12 Concepcion (a case we mentioned in a bullet point above) held that when substantive changes made by the "First Step Act" (slashing penalty ranges for crack-cocaine crimes) entitles a prisoner to a resentencing, a district court can consider intervening changes of law and fact (since the original sentencing) in deciding whether and how much to reduce a sentence. See Concepcion, 597 U.S. at 486. And as it did so, Concepcion stressed the court's historically "broad discretion to consider all relevant information" during an initial sentencing or sentence-modification proceeding. See id. at 491 (adding also that "[s]uch discretion is bounded only when Congress or the Constitution expressly limits the type of information a district court may consider in modifying a sentence"). After the conference and again citing Concepcion, the judge indicated that he'd give Shea a full resentencing if we ordered a "limited remand" — "at which [Shea] may present his case for resentencing based . . . upon . . . changes in law and fact[] since his original sentencing." Shea and the government both For anyone wondering, the government's attorney couldn't 12 say at oral argument here why prosecutors agreed to a full resentencing for Shea. - 17 - "agree[d]" that that was the "appropriate" thing to do, the judge stressed. And acting on another of Shea's "assented-to motion[s]," we then remanded so the judge could "amend its mistaken order and judgment as to his career offender designation and then hold a resentencing hearing." See Fed. R. App. P. 12.1. So the case ping-ponged to the district court. The judge talked to counsel about the significance of intervening precedent: Jones v. United States, 526 U.S. 227, 239-40 (1999) (holding that the carjacking statute's "if death results" provision isn't a sentencing factor but an element of a greater crime13), and Apprendi v. New Jersey, 530 U.S. 466, 490 (2000) (holding that "[o]ther than the fact of a prior conviction, any fact that increases the . . . statutory maximum must be" found by a jury "beyond a reasonable doubt," just like all other offense elements). And after doing that, the judge cut Shea's carjacking sentence from life to 15 years — because the judge had sentenced him to a greater term than allowed by the facts found by the jury beyond a reasonable doubt. The judge also trimmed his gun-use-during-a- The statute pertinently provides punishment of imprisonment 13 of "not more than 15 years" for carjacking. 18 U.S.C. § 2119(1). But "if serious bodily injury . . . results," the maximum is "25 years." Id. § 2119(2). And "if death results," the maximum is "life." Id. § 2119(3). - 18 - violent-crime sentences from 240 months each to 60 months each. And the judge entered an amended judgment afterward. Shea then asked us for a COA on "whether the district court properly resolved [his] Davis challenge to his [gun-use- during-a-violent-crime] convictions." And he also filed a direct appeal of his resentencing. We granted the COA and combined his appeals. b The stage set, we can now explain our court's Shea holding and how it applies here. Shea faced issues closely related to those McDonald presents. Bowing to precedential reality, Shea agreed that a defective jury instruction justifies § 2255 relief only if the defect had a "substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury's verdict," see Shea, 168 F.4th at 66 (quoting Brecht, 507 U.S. at 637 — a harmless-error standard pulled from Kotteakos v. United States, 328 U.S. 750 (1946)). But in pushing for a reversal, he argued that the general verdict made it impossible to tell which predicates (valid or invalid) underwrote his gun-use-during-a-violent-crime convictions. See Shea, 168 F.4th at 66. And so he claimed that the judge had to (but didn't) use the categorical approach (which focuses on elements, not facts) - 19 - and thus couldn't (but did) tap the fact-intensive harmless-error test. See Shea, 168 F.4th at 66. But we affirmed — for straightforward reasons. Shea "cite[d] no controlling authority" for his position. Id. He also didn't dispute that "ordinarily" when a judge instructs a jury on alternative legal theories — one incorrect, one correct — the error may be harmless under "the factual circumstances" of the case. Id. at 67 (citing Hedgpeth v. Pulido, 555 U.S. 57, 61 (2008) (per curiam), among other opinions). Analogizing, "we s[aw] no reason why a different approach to harmless error review would be required" when a judge wrongly instructs the jury that an offense is a crime-of-violence predicate. Id. Plus our holding jibed with the view held by our colleagues elsewhere, id. — including those on the Sixth Circuit, whose caselaw says "that the categorical approach 'does not govern how [the court] deal[s] with a jury-instruction error on collateral review under § 2255,' which is 'review[ed] for harmless error,'" id. at 68 (bracketed material added by Shea) (quoting Nicholson v. United States, 78 F.4th 870, 886 (6th Cir. 2023)). See generally United States v. Ali, 991 F.3d 561, 574 (4th Cir. 2021) (stating that "[t]he purpose of the categorical . . . approach is not to determine what the predicate was — a factual question — but rather whether a particular predicate meets the requirements of a 'crime of violence' — a - 20 - purely legal question" (emphases added)). Noting that Shea didn't claim that the district court botched the "harmless error analysis . . ., such as by arguing that the predicate offenses" weren't "'interrelated and coextensive,'" and that his attack on the resentencing judgment simply recycled the already-rejected claim that the gun-use-during-a-violent-crime convictions couldn't stand, we affirmed across the board. Shea, 168 F.4th at 68 & n.4. Toggling back to McDonald, his counsel (to her credit) candidly conceded at oral argument that Shea forecloses his argument for the categorical approach's application here. But unlike Shea, McDonald does argue that the judge flubbed the harmless-error probe. As he sees things, prosecutors "never proved which defendants were present at the Hudson armored car robbery" because "they never proved which defendants shot the guards." And, he adds, trial and sentencing evidence supports the notion that he "was a non-shooter whose only role was to burn a car after the fact." All of this, to his mind at least, shows that "the conspiracy was not co-extensive with the robbery." Color us unconvinced — for commonsense reasons. McDonald's gun-use-during-a-violent-crime conviction (remember) required a crime-of-violence predicate to support it. The judge's jury instructions (remember also) treated armed bank robbery, Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy, and Hobbs Act robbery as - 21 - valid predicates. Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy is no longer a proper predicate (remember as well) — but armed bank robbery and Hobbs Act robbery still are. See United States v. Frates, 896 F.3d 93, 98 (1st Cir. 2018) (armed bank robbery); United States v. Torres-Correa, 23 F.4th 129, 133 (1st Cir. 2022) (Hobbs Act robbery). So the question then is whether the record provokes a grave doubt about whether McDonald's gun-use-during-a-violent- crime conviction rested solely on the invalid predicate — a question we answer with a hard "no." The trial evidence showed — and the jury inescapably found — that an "overarching conspiracy" to rob banks and armored cars "existed," given all the proof pointing to "a common and continuing aim, similar methods of operation, continuity in personnel, and interdependence." Shea, 211 F.3d at 665. McDonald was "involved" from the get-go. Id. He and the others "as a group were regularly armed." Id. Also — and ominously — he told someone just "two days before the Hudson robbery . . . that he was going to take part in it and displayed a handgun at the same time." Id. And no less than "six weapons were used in" that heist. Id. Given all this, it's nonsensical to suggest (as McDonald seemingly does) that he and his co-culprits had guns during the conspiracy to rob the armored car but not during the actual robbery — where they killed the guards with guns. Which makes the predicate offenses - 22 - (in caselaw parlance) interrelated and coextensive. And that reality compels the conclusion that the error (instructing the jury on an invalid predicate as one of three potential predicates) is harmless. See United States v. Serrano-Delgado, 29 F.4th 16, 20-21, 28 (1st Cir. 2022) (noting that the jury had issued a general verdict finding defendant guilty of aiding and abetting Hobbs Act robbery, Hobbs Act robbery conspiracy, and discharge of a gun during a crime of violence; adding that defendant argued on direct appeal that jurors could've found the gun's use occurred during "the conspiracy, not the robbery"; and rejecting that argument because (among other reasons) it's absurd to suggest "that the discharge and death occurred during . . . the conspiracy, but not during . . . the robbery").14 McDonald's claim to us that he wasn't present at the robbery and murders doesn't move the needle. The evidence revealed that he at the very least "constructive[ly] possess[ed]" the gun "relating to the Hudson" incident. See Shea, 211 F.3d at 665.15 14McDonald does nothing to parry the government's point that "[a]t least four federal appellate courts have applied the harmless-error rule in similar contexts," citing (in the order they appear in the government's brief) Granda v. United States, 990 F.3d 1272, 1280, 1292 (11th Cir. 2021), Baugh v. United States, 64 F.4th 779-81, 783 (6th Cir. 2023), United States v. Reed, 48 F.4th 1082, 1089-90 (9th Cir. 2022), and Ali, 991 F.3d at 575-76. 15Constructive possession generally means that the defendant had "knowing[] . . . dominion and control over an object, either directly or through others" — without actual custody of it. See - 23 - And if more were needed — and we doubt it is — the judge had instructed that McDonald "may be convicted of using a firearm during a violent crime based upon his own conduct or based upon his having aided and abetted another in the commission of that crime." See 18 U.S.C. § 2 (directing that an aider and abettor is guilty as a principal). So it's plausible that the jury could've convicted on an aiding-and-abetting theory after finding "beyond a reasonable doubt" that he "knew to a practical certainty that [a] principal would be using" a gun. Interestingly — and revealingly — the government made that point in its brief. And McDonald's reply brief offered no pushback. His gun-use-during- a-violent-crime conviction stands. And we move on. 2 The second (and final) argument grouping concerns McDonald's claim that the judge should've ordered a full resentencing as the § 2255 remedy after ruling that he didn't have enough predicates post-Johnson for an ACCA-enhanced sentence. To bring that claim into view, it helps to recall what happened below. The judge ruled that McDonald's ACCA life sentence United States v. Mulero-Vargas, 24 F.4th 754, 757 (1st Cir. 2022) (quoting United States v. Williams, 717 F.3d 35, 39 (1st Cir. 2013)). - 24 - on his gun-possession-by-a-felon conviction became unconstitutional after Johnson (because he now lacked the required predicate priors with ACCA's residual clause gone). And the judge remedied that constitutional violation by choosing one of the statutorily specified cures — "correct[ing] the [gun-possession- by-a-felon] sentence" by lowering it from life to 120 months, while leaving the life carjacking sentence intact. See § 2255(b). Raising an issue of first impression (about whether he's properly before us seeking relief), McDonald argues that because the judge's remedy pick "[wa]s part of the § 2255 proceeding, [he] must obtain a COA" to contest that decision — rather than filing a notice of appeal (which we'll now shorten to "NOA") in the underlying criminal case. Adamant that the COA route is right, he then says that the judge had the discretion to pick a complete resentencing among potential remedial options. But he complains that "the district court" did not "underst[an]d it had [that] "discretion" (we'll explain what he means by this in a minute). Were it not for that "[mis]underst[anding]," he believes that the judge would've ordered a "plenary" resentencing — like the judge did for co-defendant Shea. And if that had happened — he argues, quoting Concepcion — his resentencing sentence would've been based on "intervening changes" in the "law" like Shea's was. The "intervening changes" he's talking about involve the cases - 25 - spotlighted at Shea's resentencing: Jones (ruling that the carjacking act's "if death results" proviso isn't a sentencing factor but an element of a greater crime) and Apprendi (ruling that most facts that boost the top permissible sentence are offense