Grady v. Town of Somers

Opinion

The principal issue in this appeal is whether the common-law exception to a municipal employee’s qualified immunity for discretionary acts, in circumstances that make it apparent that the employee’s failure to act likely would subject an identifiable person to imminent harm (identifiable person, imminent harm exception), also applies in an action brought solely against a municipality pursuant to General Statutes § 52-557n (a). 1 The plaintiff, Thomas Grady, appeals 2 from the trial court’s grant of the motion for summary judgment filed by the defendant, the town of Somers, in this action arising from his fall on the ice at a transfer and recycling center (transfer station) owned *327 and maintained by the defendant. On appeal, the plaintiff claims that the trial court improperly concluded that he could not resort to the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to maintain a direct action against the defendant under § 52-557n (a) (1) (A), and that the exception would be applicable only if he first had named a municipal employee as a codefendant, and then had claimed indemnification from the defendant pursuant to General Statutes § 7-465 (a). 3 Although we agree with *328 the plaintiff that the common-law identifiable person, imminent harm exception applies to the discretionary act immunity provided to municipalities by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B), we also agree with the defendant that the plaintiff was not a member of the class of persons subject to that exception. Accordingly, we affirm the judgment of the trial court on that alternate ground.

The record reveals the following undisputed facts and procedural history. The defendant operates and maintains a transfer station for refuse disposal within the town limits. The defendant’s residents were permitted to access the transfer station only if they first had purchased a permit and displayed it on their vehicle.* ** 4 On January 7, 2006, the plaintiff, who held a permit, went to the transfer station to dispose of his Christmas tree in a specially designated area, which was lower in elevation than the rest of the transfer station. While there, he walked around to the back of his pickup truck and slipped on an ice patch, sustaining a fractured ankle that required surgery, as well as soft tissue injuries to his knee and wrist. Although several of the defendant’s employees were on duty at the time that the plaintiff fell, none were in the vicinity where he was injured, and there was no evidence of how long the ice patch had been in existence prior to his fall.

After giving the defendant notice of his claim pursuant to General Statutes § 7-101a (d), 5 6the plaintiff *329 brought this action for money damages and lost wages, claiming that the defendant had breached its duty to maintain the transfer station in a safe condition by failing to warn of dangerous ice conditions, or to spread sand and salt or similar material on the icy area where he fell. The plaintiff did not name any of the defendant’s individual employees as defendants in this action. Thereafter, along with its answer, the defendant filed numerous special defenses, including that it: (1) “was engaged in and was performing a governmental function requiring the exercise of judgment and/or discretion and as such is immune from liability under the theory of governmental immunity”; and (2) “is immune from liability pursuant to the provisions of § 52-557 (a) (2) (B), in that it was engaged in performing a governmental function requiring the exercise of judgment and/or discretion.”

Following, discovery, the defendant moved for summary judgment, arguing that the plaintiff had failed to allege any claim that would overcome the defendant’s governmental immunity. Despite the plaintiffs failure to cite § 52-557n (a) in his complaint as the sole basis for his claim against the defendant, a municipality, 6 the trial court stated that the statute “incorporates the three exceptions to governmental immunity previously recognized under the common law,” namely, the negligent performance of ministerial acts, tortious conduct in the performance of proprietary, for-profit functions, and *330 the intentional creation of a nuisance by positive acts. The trial court first concluded that, because the defendant had not promulgated rules, guidelines or procedures for the maintenance of the transfer station, maintenance was a discretionary—rather than a ministerial—task for which it was immune from liability pursuant to § 52-557n (a) (2) (B). 7 Relying on the history of § 52-557n (a), and this court’s decisions in Pane v. Danbury, 267 Conn. 669, 841 A.2d 684 (2004), and Ses-tito v. Groton, 178 Conn. 520, 423 A.2d 165 (1979), the trial court then rejected the plaintiffs argument, founded on Doe v. Petersen, 279 Conn. 607, 903 A.2d 191 (2006), that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception applicable to municipal employees’ common-law qualified immunity should be extended directly to municipalities themselves in actions brought under § 52-557n (a). The trial court stated that the text of § 52-557n (a) “conspicuously lacks any exception to immunity resembling the [identifiable victim] imminent harm exception” and concluded that the plaintiff “cannot resort to the [identifiable victim] imminent harm exception applicable to municipal employees to vanquish the immunity from liability expressly afforded to municipalities for negligent, discretionary acts by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B).” (Emphasis in original.) Accordingly, the trial court granted the defendant’s motion for summary judgment, and this appeal followed. See footnote 2 of this opinion.

On appeal, the plaintiff claims that the trial court improperly concluded that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception does not apply in an action brought pursuant to § 52-557n (a) directly against a *331 municipality. The plaintiff further claims that he was a member of the class of persons that was subject to that exception.

Before addressing the plaintiffs claims in greater detail, we note that, “[b]ecause the present case was disposed of by way of summary judgment, we first address the appropriate framework for appellate review of a summary judgment determination. Practice Book § 17-49 provides that summary judgment shall be rendered forthwith if the pleadings, affidavits and any other proof submitted show that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law. In deciding a motion for summary judgment, the trial court must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party. . . . The party moving for summary judgment has the burden of showing the absence of any genuine issue of material fact and that the party is, therefore, entitled to judgment as a matter of law. . . . On appeal, we must determine whether the legal conclusions reached by the trial court are legally and logically correct and whether they find support in the facts set out in the memorandum of decision of the trial court. . . . Our review of the trial court’s decision to grant the defendant’s motion for summary judgment is plenary.” (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Sokaitis v. Bakaysa, 293 Conn. 17, 21-22, 975 A.2d 51 (2009).

I

We begin with the plaintiffs claim that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception applies to the discretionary act immunity afforded by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B) in an action brought directly against a municipality under that statute. Specifically, he argues that, under Pane v. Danbury, supra, 267 Conn. 677-78 n.9, and Spears v. Garcia, 263 Conn. 22,29, 818 A.2d 37 (2003), a direct cause of action for negligence may be maintained *332 pursuant to § 52-557n (a) against a municipality without the requirement that one of its employees be named as a defendant, as well. The plaintiff further contends that, under Doe v. Petersen, supra, 279 Conn. 616, liability may be imposed upon a municipality under § 52-557n (a) “when the circumstances make it apparent to [a] public officer that his or her failure to act would be likely to subject an identifiable person to imminent harm . . . .” (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Violano v. Fernandez, 280 Conn. 310, 320, 907 A.2d 1188 (2006).

In response, the defendant contends that, at common law, municipalities were protected by governmental immunity from both direct and vicarious liability but, in contrast, municipal employees had a more limited qualified immunity that was subject to the identifiable person, imminent harm exception. The defendant also relies on Spears v. Garcia, supra, 263 Conn. 28-29, and Pane v. Danbury, supra, 267 Conn. 677-78 n.9, and emphasizes that § 52-557n (a), which is a statutory exception to common-law governmental immunity, should be strictly construed, and its scope of liability not enlarged, because it does not contain an identifiable person, imminent harm exception for immunity arising from municipal employees’ discretionary acts. The defendant also contends that any indication to the contrary in Doe v. Petersen, supra, 279 Conn. 607, is dicta. We agree with the plaintiff and conclude that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to qualified immunity for an employee’s discretionary acts is applicable in an action brought under § 52-557n (a) to hold a municipality directly hable for those acts.

Whether the identifiable person, imminent harm exception provides a basis for liability under § 52-557n (a) presents a question of statutory interpretation, which is “a question over which we exercise plenary review. . . . The principles that govern statutory con- *333 straction are well established. When construing a statute, [o]ur fundamental objective is to ascertain and give effect to the apparent intent of the legislature. ... In other words, we seek to determine, in a reasoned manner, the meaning of the statutory language as applied to the facts of [the] case, including the question of whether the language actually does apply. ... In seeking to determine that meaning, General Statutes § l-2z directs us first to consider the text of the statute itself and its relationship to other statutes. If, after examining such text and considering such relationship, the meaning of such text is plain and unambiguous and does not yield absurd or unworkable results, extratextual evidence of the meaning of the statute shall not be considered. . . . When a statute is not plain and unambiguous, we also look for interpretive guidance to the legislative history and circumstances surrounding its enactment, to the legislative policy it was designed to implement, and to its relationship to existing legislation and common law principles governing the same general subject matter . . . .” (Citation omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Sokaitis v. Bakaysa, supra, 293 Conn. 22-23.

We begin with the text of § 52-557n (a), which provides in relevant part: “(1) Except as otherwise provided by law, a political subdivision of the state shall be liable for damages to person or property caused by: (A) The negligent acts or omissions of such political subdivision or any employee, officer or agent thereof acting within the scope of his employment or official duties . . . .” Subdivision (1) must, however, be read in conjunction with subdivision (2), which, “[e]xcept as otherwise provided by law,” immunizes political subdivisions from liability “for damages to person or property caused by . . . (B) negligent acts or omissions which require the exercise of judgment or discretion as an official function of the authority expressly or *334 impliedly granted by law.” General Statutes § 52-557n (a) (2) (B). We previously have described the meaning of § 52-557n (a) as “far from plain”; Sanzone v. Board of Police Commissioners, 219 Conn. 179, 188, 592 A.2d 912 (1991); particularly with respect to the savings clauses that begin the subdivisions of subsection (a), namely, the words “[e]xcept as otherwise provided by law,” and specifically whether the “law” referred to therein includes common-law doctrines, as well as state and federal statutes, that implicate the liabilities and immunities of municipalities and their employees. See id. (“it is unclear whether the limitation on liability of political subdivisions contained in the section is intended to supersede the indemnification statute, § 7-465”). Thus, this statutory language is ambiguous because it is subject to more than one reasonable reading, and we may, therefore, consult extratextual sources in construing § 52-557n (a). See, e.g., Aspetuck Valley Country Club, Inc. v. Weston, 292 Conn. 817, 823, 975 A.2d 1241 (2009).

In considering whether the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to a municipal employee’s qualified immunity applies to the governmental liabilities and immunities prescribed by § 52-557n (a) in an action brought directly and solely against a municipality, we do not write on a blank slate, as there is an extensive body of case law explaining the statute’s relationship with the common law and other relevant statutes. As a matter of Connecticut’s common law, “the general rule ... is that a municipality is immune from liability for negligence unless the legislature has enacted a statute abrogating that immunity.” Williams v. New Haven, 243 Conn. 763, 766-67, 707 A.2d 1251 (1998); but see footnote 10 of this opinion. Our legislature has, however, “acted to limit governmental immunity in certain circumstances. For example, in General Statutes § 13a- *335 149, 8 the legislature has provided for municipal liability for property damage or personal injuries caused by defective roads and bridges. The legislature also has set forth general principles of municipal liability and immunity in ... § 52-557n”; 9 Williams v. New Haven, supra, 767; and subsection (a) (1) (A) of § 52-557n “clearly and expressly abrogates the traditional common-law doctrine in this state that municipalities are immune from suit for torts committed by their employees and agents”; Spears v. Garcia, supra, 263 Conn. 29; and permits a tort claimant to bring a “direct cause of action in negligence against a municipality.” 10 Id., 31. *336 That abrogation of common-law immunity is not, however, limitless, as subdivision (2) of subsection (a) then provides that, “[e]xcept as otherwise provided by law,” a municipality shall not be liable for damages caused by “(A) . . . any employee, officer or agent which constitute criminal conduct, fraud, actual malice or wilful misconduct; or (B) negligent acts or omissions which require the exercise of judgment or discretion as an official function of the authority expressly or impliedly granted by law.” General Statutes § 52-557n (a) (2). Further, § 52-557n (b)* 23*5***** 11 then “sets forth many excep *337 tions under which an injured party may not pursue a direct action in negligence against a municipality.” 12 Spears v. Garcia, supra, 33.

Proceeding via a direct action under § 52-557n (a) is not, however, the only means for a tort claimant to hold a municipality liable for the negligent acts of its officers or employees. Specifically, “[a]t common law, municipal officers were hable for their own torts, but the municipality, their municipal ‘master,’ was not vicariously liable for those torts. . . . [Section] 7-465 (a) effectively circumvented the general common law immunity of municipalities from vicarious liability for their employees’ acts by permitting injured plaintiffs to seek indemnification from a municipal employer for such acts under certain circumstances and after conformance with certain statutory requirements, but it did not bar a plaintiff from seeking redress from those employees.” (Citations omitted.) Sanzone v. Board of Police Commissioners, supra, 219 Conn. 193. Municipal liability via an indemnification theory under § 7-465 (a) requires, however, that the plaintiff “allege in a separate count and prove the employee’s duty to the individual injured and the breach thereof. Only then may the plaintiff go on to allege and prove the town’s liability by indemnification.” (Emphasis in original.) Sestito v. (Tro- *338 ton, supra, 178 Conn. 527; see also, e.g., Martin v. Westport, 108 Conn. App. 710, 730, 950 A.2d 19 (2008) (municipality not liable under § 7-465 [a] for negligent infliction of emotional distress when plaintiff did not name employee as defendant and proceed via separate indemnification count).

A tort claimant seeking to establish the liability of a municipal employee or official arising out of the negligent performance of a discretionary act necessary for indemnification by the municipality under § 7-465 (a) must, however, overcome the qualified immunity afforded to those employees or officials at common law “in part because of the danger that a more expansive exposure to liability would cramp the exercise of official discretion beyond the limits desirable in our society.” 13 (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Doe v. Petersen, supra, 279 Conn. 614. Municipal employees’ common-law qualified immunity for discretionary acts remains subject to three exceptions, only the first of which is relevant to this appeal, namely, “where the circumstances make it apparent to the public officer that his or her failure to act would be likely to subject an identifiable person to imminent harm . . . .” 14 (Internal *339 quotation marks omitted.) Fleming v. Bridgeport, 284 Conn. 502, 531-32, 935 A.2d 126 (2007).

This review of these parallel vehicles for municipal liability, namely, directly under § 52-557n (a), or via indemnification under § 7-465 (a), brings us to the precise question at issue in this appeal, that is, whether the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to municipal employees’ qualified immunity applies in actions brought directly against municipalities under § 52-557n, and thereby operates as an exception to the discretionary act immunity provided by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B). Resolution of this issue marks a natural step in the evolution of the law following our decision in Spears v. Garcia, supra, 263 Conn. 22, wherein we concluded that § 52-557n (a) permits a plaintiff to bring a direct cause of action in negligence against a municipality, but were not called upon to consider the applicability of specific immunity principles or exceptions thereto. As the trial court noted, subsequent decisions of this court applying the identifiable person, imminent harm exception in the context of claims brought against a municipality under § 52-557n, but without being called upon to decide the threshold issue raised in this appeal, similarly have left this question unresolved. 15 See gener *340 ally Doe v. Petersen, supra, 279 Conn. 611 and n.2 (application of exception to case wherein claims against employee had been withdrawn, where plaintiff alleged that town was negligent in its handling of her complaint about sexual assault by town employee tennis instructor); 16 see also, e.g., Durrant v. Board of Education, 284 Conn. 91, 95-96, 931 A.2d 859 (2007) (application of exception to case, wherein employees were named as defendants as well, arising from injuries sustained on public school property while plaintiff picked up her child from after school program); Swanson v. Groton, 116 Conn. App. 849, 859-62, 977 A.2d 738 (2009) (application of exception to case wherein intoxicated person stabbed rooming house manager after being permitted to return there by police officer, who was also named as defendant); Doe v. Board of Education, 76 Conn. App. 296, 297, 300-301,819 A.2d 289 (2003) (application of exception to case arising from sexual assault of student who claimed that school board negligently had exercised discretion in securing school and in inadequately providing for supervision of students). The *341 application of the exception in these cases raises a potential conflict with dicta in Pane v. Danbury, supra, 267 Conn. 669, wherein we concluded that the plaintiffs complaint had failed to state a cause of action because the allegations therein did not satisfy the elements of an invasion of privacy claim. See id., 676-77. In Pane, we also, however, went further and stated that the city was in any event immune from the plaintiffs invasion of privacy claims because she had failed to “[cite] any statute abrogating governmental immunity” for that tort; id., 677; and also that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception is applicable “to the doctrine of qualified immunity from liability as it applies to a municipal employee, as distinct from the municipality itself’; (emphasis in original) id., 677 n.9; and did not apply in that case because the claims against the municipal employee originally named as a defendant therein had been withdrawn. 17 Id., 678 n.9.

To resolve this conflict, we begin, then, with Sanzone v. Board of Police Commissioners, supra, 219 Conn. 191-92, wherein this court concluded that the phrase, “ ‘[e]xcept as otherwise provided by law,’ ” as used in the savings clauses of § 52-557n (a), applies only to *342 state and federal statutes, and not the common law, a conclusion that was mentioned in Spears v. Garcia, supra, 263 Conn. 29, and Cook v. Turner, 219 Conn. 641, 644, 593 A.2d 504 (1991). 18 Turning first to the savings clauses of § 52-557n (a), although the court acknowledged legislative history to the contrary, it nevertheless limited the savings clauses’ application in that case to state and federal statutes, on the ground that to permit highway defect actions to be brought under a common-law nuisance theory would render the specific proviso in § 52-557n (a), restricting highway defect actions to those brought under § 13a-149, a meaningless *343 nullity. 19 Sanzone v. Board of Police Commissioners, supra, 191-92. Similarly, in Spears, we concluded that § 52-557n (a) (1) permits tort claimants to bring direct negligence actions against municipalities, and noted that construing the savings clause to include the common law improperly would have rendered that statutory language a meaningless nullity, as well. Spears v. Garcia, supra, 29.

In contrast to Sanzone and Spears, a conclusion in this case that the savings clauses may include the common law, in addition to state and federal statutes, would operate to clarify the various terms of § 52-557n that are at issue, rather than to nullify them impermissibly. See, e.g., American Promotional Events, Inc. v. Blumenthal, 285 Conn. 192, 203, 937 A.2d 1184 (2008) (“ [interpreting a statute to render some of its language superfluous violates cardinal principles of statutory interpretation”). It also would accommodate the remarks of Representative Robert Jaekle, a leading sponsor of the Tort Reform I bill ultimately enacted as § 52-557n; see footnote 9 of this opinion; made repeatedly during floor debates, that the savings clause encompasses “federal, state, local, even common law . . . ,” 20 29 H.R. Proc., Pt. 16, 1986 Sess., p. 5928; see *344 also id., p. 5834, remarks of Representative Jaekle (“[E]xcept as otherwise provided by law, [municipalities] are not liable for the following things. That law by the way would even include common law, federal law that puts burdens and imposes liabilities on towns as to some of the specific exceptions.”).

Although much of the legislative history of § 52-557n has been characterized as “worse than murky”; 21 San-zone v. Board of Police Commissioners, supra, 219 Conn. 188; there are some additional indications of the legislature’s intent with respect to the issue in this case. While discussing an unsuccessful amendment that would have deleted the portion of the bill enacted as § 52-557n, on the ground that it was too restrictive with respect to its limitations on claimants’ rights, 22 Representative Jaekle responded to numerous questions about municipalities’ potential liability under a variety of fact patterns, some hypothetical, and some actual cases. Several of his answers indicated that municipalities could be held directly hable under § 52-557n for their employees’ negligent acts, even when those acts required the exercise of discretion. See 29 H.R. Proc., supra, pp. 5903-5904 (snowplow accident in public *345 school parking lot); id., pp. 5933-35 (despite language precluding civil liability for employee’s wilful or criminal acts, town could be held liable for supervisor negligently permitting road crew member to operate truck while intoxicated). This debate indicates that the legislature did not contemplate § 52-557n as a bar against all civil actions arising from employees’ discretionary acts, despite the discretionary act immunity afforded by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B).

Moreover, a postenactment Connecticut Law Revision Commission report, prepared at the request of the cochairmen of the judiciary committee to clarify the legislature’s uncertainty about the relationship between § 52-557n and the common law, further indicates that the legislature contemplated that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to qualified immunity would apply in direct actions against municipalities. 23 The commission report noted that § 52-557n “codifies the standards of municipal liability and immunity from suit. The section brings together and revises a large body of pre-existing common law concerning municipal responsibilities.” Report of the Law Revision Commission to the Judiciary Committee, Comparing Public Act 86-338, An Act Concerning Tort Reform and Prior Connecticut Law (1987), p. 3 (Report of the Law Revision Commission). Specifically, the commission report determined that § 52-557n “codifies rules of liability for political subdivisions thereby replacing the existing *346 common law of liabilities.” 24 Id., p. 21. The commission report then cites Sestito v. Groton, supra, 178 Conn. 520, an identifiable person, imminent harm exception case, and states that, “[t]hese express exceptions to liability for the most part codify specific examples of the underlying common law principles that a municipality is not liable . . . unless . . . there is a knowing failure to act or to exercise a prescribed duty of care endangering individuals.” 25 (Citation omitted.) Report of the Law Revision Commission, supra, p. 22. The commission’s conclusion, then, indicates that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to municipal employees’ qualified immunity is applicable to direct actions against the municipality brought under § 52-557n.

Finally, we previously have recognized that §§ 7-465 and 52-557n are “coextensive”; 26 Spears v. Garcia, *347 supra, 263 Conn. 37; and have concluded that the availability of indemnification under § 7-465 (a) for municipal employees’ torts may be constrained by § 52-557n (a). For example, in Sanzone v. Board of Police Commissioners, supra, 219 Conn. 192, this court concluded that § 52-557n “precludes a joint action seeking . . . damages [arising from a highway defect] against a municipality and its officer pursuant to § 7-465 (a) [because] otherwise, the proviso in § 52-557n would be stripped of all meaning, for § 7-465 (a) would permit a plaintiff to reach the result forbidden by § 52-557n: the imposition of tort liability on a municipality for a highway defect claim.” See also id., 193 (“§ 52-557n removes torts related to highway defects from the class of torts for which municipal employees may be indemnified under § 7-465 [a] . . . [although] [t]here is no reason to believe, however, that the legislature intended to eliminate an injured plaintiffs common law right to seek damages from individual municipal employees”). Similarly, in Violano v. Fernandez, supra, 280 Conn. 327, we rejected an argument calling for abandonment of the common-law distinction between discretionary and ministerial acts, in favor of a distinction between employees’ planning and operational responsibilities, emphasizing that “any alteration to the common-law test employed to determine when governmental immunity applies to a municipal official or employee would alter the municipality’s liability because of the indemnification obligation imposed on the municipality by § 7-465. Such a change therefore would have the effect of nullifying the legislature’s codification [in § 52-557n (a)] *348 of the distinction between ministerial and discretionary acts, which we decline to do.” Id., 328 n.10.

Thus, given the close relationship between § 52-557n (a) and the common-law doctrines governing municipal employees’ immunity and liability for indemnification purposes under § 7-465 (a), as well as the indications present in the legislative history with respect to the limited scope of the discretionary act immunity afforded by § 52-557n (a) (2) (B), we now conclude that the identifiable person, imminent harm common-law exception to municipal employees’ qualified immunity also applies in an action brought directly against municipalities pursuant to § 52-557n (a) (1) (A), regardless of whether an employee or officer of the municipality also is a named defendant. This conclusion is consistent with the legislature’s intent, when it enacted § 52-557n, to create a harmonious body of law governing municipal liability. Moreover, to conclude that a plaintiff must always name a municipal employee as a defendant and then plead a separate indemnification claim under § 7-465 (a), would be inconsistent with our long-standing body of case law that “repeatedly has eschewed applying the law in such a hypertechnicai manner so as to elevate form over substance.” 27 Lostritto v. Community Action Agency of New Haven, Inc., 269 Conn. 10, 34, 848 A.2d 418 (2004); see also Zoning Board of Appeals v. Freedom of Information Commission, 66 Conn. App. 279, 285-86, 784 A.2d 383 (2001) (emphasizing that interpretation of General Statutes § 1-21 [a] requiring separate, affirmative two-thirds vote to add item, not previously published, to meeting agenda, despite vote on merits of that proposal, “is not a matter *349 of exalting form over substance”). Accordingly, we disagree with the trial court’s determination to the contrary, overrule the dicta in Pane v. Danbury, supra, 267 Conn. 677-78 n.9, that states otherwise, and conclude that the identifiable person, imminent harm exception to employees’ qualified immunity applies to the immunity afforded to municipalities for the negligent performance of discretionary acts under § 52-557n (a) (2) (B).

II

Accordingly, we now turn to the defendant’s contention that the trial court properly granted its motion for summary judgment because the plaintiff was not a member of the class of persons subject to the identifiable victim, imminent harm exception since, under Durrant v. Board of Education, supra, 284 Conn. 91, and Prescott v. Meriden, 273 Conn. 759, 873 A.2d 175 (2005), he had acted voluntarily by driving to the transfer station and parking his vehicle where he did. In response, the plaintiff relies on Burns v. Board of Education, 228 Conn. 640, 649-50, 638 A.2d 1 (1994), and argues that, as one of the defendant’s residents and a paid permit holder for the transfer station, he was a member of that protected class of persons. We agree with the defendant that the trial court properly granted its motion for summary judgment because the plaintiff was not an identifiable person potentially subject to imminent harm. 28

*350 As noted previously, the plaintiff concedes that the defendant’s conduct in maintaining the transfer station was discretionary; see footnote 7 of this opinion; which means that, under the facts and circumstances of the present case, he can prevail only by satisfying the sole relevant exception to discretionary act immunity under § 52-557n (a) (2) (B), namely, the identifiable person, imminent harm exception. That exception applies “when the circumstances make it apparent to the public officer that his or her failure to act would be likely to subject an identifiable person to imminent harm .... By its own terms, this test requires three things: (1) an imminent harm; (2) an identifiable victim; and (3) a public official to whom it is apparent that his or her conduct is likely to subject that victim to that harm. . . . We have stated previously that this exception to the general rule of governmental immunity for employees engaged in discretionary activities has received very limited recognition in this state. ... If the plaintiffs fail to establish any one of the three prongs, this failure will be fatal to their claim that they come within the imminent harm exception.” (Citations omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Violano v. Fernandez, supra, 280 Conn. 329.

With respect to the identifiable victim element, we note that this exception applies “not only to identifiable individuals but also to narrowly defined identified *351 classes of foreseeable victims. . . . [W]hether a particular plaintiff comes within a cognizable class of foreseeable victims for purposes of this narrowly drawn exception to qualified immunity ultimately is a question of law for the courts, in that it is in effect a question of whether to impose a duty of care. ... In delineating the scope of a foreseeable class of victims exception to governmental immunity, our courts have considered numerous criteria, including the imminency of any potential harm, the likelihood that harm will result from a failure to act with reasonable care, and the identifiability of the particular victim. . . . Other courts, in carving out similar exceptions to their respective doctrines of governmental immunity, have also considered whether the legislature specifically designated an identifiable subclass as the intended beneficiaries of certain acts . . . whether the relationship was of a voluntary nature . . . the seriousness of the injury threatened . . . the duration of the threat of injury . . . and whether the persons at risk had the opportunity to protect themselves from harm.” (Citations omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Durrant v. Board of Education, supra, 284 Conn. 100-101, citing Purzycki v. Fairfield, 244 Conn. 101, 108 n.5, 708 A.2d 937 (1998); Burns v. Board of Education, supra, 228 Conn. 646; see also Sestito v. Groton, supra, 178 Conn. 527-28.

In our recent decision in Durrant, we emphasized the narrowness of the class of persons who may be identified as foreseeable victims, and concluded that a six year old child present on school grounds to attend an after school day care program, and by association, his mother, who was injured when she fell on school grounds after she arrived to pick her child up, were not “member[s] of an identifiable class of foreseeable victims subject to imminent harm for purposes of satisfying that exception to the qualified immunity of a municipal employee for discretionary acts.” Durrant v. *352 Board of Education, supra, 284 Conn. 103-104. Assuming that the imminent harm requirement had been satisfied, we emphasized that “[t]he only identifiable class of foreseeable victims that we have recognized for these purposes is that of schoolchildren attending public schools during school hours” because: “they were intended to be the beneficiaries of particular duties of care imposed by law on school officials; they were legally required to attend school rather than being there voluntarily; their parents were thus statutorily required to relinquish their custody to those officials during those hours; and, as a matter of policy, they traditionally require special consideration in the face of dangerous conditions.” (Internal quotation marks omitted.) Id., 107, quoting Prescott v. Meriden, supra, 273 Conn. 764.

Thus, we concluded in Durrant that the plaintiff was not a member of a narrowly defined class of foreseeable victims because she “was not compelled statutorily to relinquish protective custody of her child. No statute or legal doctrine required the plaintiff to enroll her child in the after school program; nor did any law require her to allow her child to remain after school on that particular day. . . . The plaintiffs actions were entirely voluntary, and none of her voluntary choices imposes an additional duty of care on school authorities pursuant to the Bums standards,” 29 despite the fact that *353 “our state statutes condone and even encourage the use of public school facilities for the very purpose for which the plaintiffs child was in attendance at the school on the day of the plaintiffs fall.” (Citations omitted.) Durrant v. Board of Education, supra, 284 Conn. 108, citing General Statutes § 17b-737; see also Prescott v. Meriden, supra, 273 Conn. 764-65 (parent watching his son’s high school football game was not member of class of identifiable persons because his attendance at game was “purely voluntary,” and “[Recognizing the plaintiff as establishing a cognizable class of foreseeable victims, namely, parents of students on the team . . . would mean that all spectators at a public municipal event would constitute a class of foreseeable victims for these purposes, thus making the exception so broad that it would threaten to swallow the rule”).

Application of this rule has been similarly restrictive outside of the public school context because, in addition to not recognizing any additional classes of foreseeable victims, the decisions reveal only one case wherein a specific plaintiff was held potentially to be an identifiable victim subject to imminent harm for purposes of this exception to qualified immunity. See Sestito v. Gro-ton, supra, 178 Conn. 522-23, 527-28 (facts presented jury question in case wherein on-duty town police officer watched and witnessed ongoing brawl in bar’s parking lot, but did not intervene until after participant had shot and killed plaintiffs decedent). Sestito appears, however, to be limited to its facts, as the remainder of the case law indicates that this exception has been applied narrowly, because “[a]n allegedly identifiable person must be identifiable as a potential victim of a *354 specific imminent harm. Likewise, the alleged imminent harm must be imminent in terms of its impact on a specific identifiable person.” 30 Doe v. Petersen, supra, 279 Conn. 620-21; see Cotto v. Board of Education, 294 Conn. 265, 279-80, 984 A.2d 58 (2009) (This court concluded that a youth director injured in a school bathroom was not an identifiable person subject to imminent harm because if he “was identifiable as a potential victim of a specific imminent harm, then so was every participant and supervisor in the [summer youth] program who used the bathroom. Although it may have been foreseeable that the plaintiff would go into the bathroom to look for children [who could not be accounted for], the risk of specific harm to him was not sufficiently immediate because any person using the bathroom could have slipped at any time.” [Emphasis in *355 original.]); Evon v. Andrews, 211 Conn. 501, 507-508, 559 A.2d 1131 (1989) (rejecting application of exception to claims of negligent fire inspection by city officials because “[t]he class of possible victims of an unspecified fire that may occur at some unspecified time in the future is by no means a group of ‘identifiable persons’ ”); Shore v. Stonington, 187 Conn. 147, 150-51, 153-54, 444 A.2d 1379 (1982) (plaintiffs decedent did not constitute identifiable person when she was killed in accident with intoxicated motorist who defendant police officer had stopped, and let continue to drive, earlier that evening); Swanson v. Groton, supra, 116 Conn. App. 861 (police officer “would have had to have known that [intoxicated person] was going to attack a specific person . . . when he returned home to the [rooming house]”). Indeed, even outside the public school context, whether the plaintiff was compelled to be at the location where the injury occurred remains a paramount consideration in determining whether the plaintiff was an identifiable person or member of a foreseeable class of victims. See DeConti v. McGlone, 88 Conn. App. 270, 273-75, 869 A.2d 271 (plaintiff in case of rotted tree falling on car was not identifiable victim, despite fact that “she lives in close proximity to the tree in question” and “was required to drive on [street where tree fell] as a result of the location of her house” because “[s]he has not shown that her decision to take that particular route was anything but a voluntary decision that was made as a matter of convenience”), cert. denied, 273 Conn. 940, 875 A.2d 42 (2005).

Thus, assuming, without deciding, that the imminent harm element of the exception has been satisfied, 31 we *356 conclude that the plaintiff is not a member of a class of identifiable persons for purposes of this exception to governmental immunity. We disagree with the plaintiffs argument that, as a town resident who had purchased a permit for the transfer station, he is an identifiable person. 32 We acknowledge that “whether a particular plaintiff comes within a cognizable class of foreseeable victims for purposes of this exception to qualified immunity is ultimately a question of policy for the courts, in that it is in effect a question of duty . . . [that] involves a mixture of policy considerations and evolving expectations of a maturing society . . . .” (Citation omitted; internal quotation marks omitted.) Prescott v. Meriden, supra, 273 Conn. 763-64. Nevertheless, under our case law, particularly Durrant v. Board of Education, supra, 284 Conn. 100, and Prescott v. Meriden, supra, 764-65, wherein we have inteipreted the identifiable person element narrowly as it pertains to an injured party’s compulsion to be in the place at issue, we conclude that the plaintiff is not a member of a class of foreseeable victims because, as he acknowledges, he was not legally required to dispose of his refuse by taking it to the transfer station personally and could have hired an independent contractor to do so. See footnote 4 of this opinion; see also Durrant v. Board of Education, supra, 109 (“[t]here is a significant distinction . . . between a program in which participation is encouraged and one in which it is compelled!” [emphasis in original]); DeConti v. McGlone, supra, 88 Conn. App. 274 (“Connecticut courts have consistently *357 denied relief absent a requirement that the plaintiff be present at the location where the injury occurred”). Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court properly granted the defendant’s motion for summary judgment.

The judgment is affirmed.

In this opinion the other justices concurred.