Leroy A. Lovelace v. Jack Lee Gene Shinault K. Lester

Affirmed in part, vacated in part, and remanded by published opinion. Judge MICHAEL wrote the opinion, in which Judge MOTZ joined. Judge WILKINSON wrote a separate opinion concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part.

OPINION

Leroy Lovelace was an inmate at Keen Mountain Correctional Center (Keen Mountain or prison), a Virginia state prison, in 2002 and 2003. He is a member of the Nation of Islam. In 2002 Keen Mountain adopted a policy to accommodate inmates seeking to observe Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting and prayer. Lovelace participated in the Ramadan observance program for roughly six days in November 2002 before being removed from the “pass list” (the list of participants) for allegedly breaking the fast. He was consequently barred from the special meals for fast participants and from Ramadan congregational prayers for the remainder of Ramadan, a total of twenty-four days. He filed an action against Warden Jack Lee, Assistant Warden Gene Shi-nault, and Correctional Officer K. Lester (the defendants), alleging violations of the First Amendment, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA), 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000cc et seq. The district court granted summary judgment to the defendants on all claims. Lovelace appeals the summary judgment and two of the district court’s procedural rulings.

For the reasons that follow, we vacate summary judgment in favor of Officer Lester in his individual capacity on the RLUI-PA and free exercise claims, and we vacate summary judgment in favor of Warden Lee on the claims asserted against him in his official capacity. We affirm the remainder of the district court’s rulings.

Our dissenting colleague agrees that Lovelace’s case may proceed against Officer Lester because “Lovelace has presented an issue of triable fact as to whether correctional officer Lester intentionally *182violated his religious liberty,” and “RLUI-PA provides a cause of action to redress this type of infringement.” Post at 38. The dissent disagrees, however, with our decision to remand for further consideration of Lovelace’s RLUIPA and constitutional claims against Warden Lee in his official capacity. A remand on these claims, especially the RLUIPA claim, is necessary to ensure that the prison satisfies its obligation — an obligation it has not yet attempted to meet — -to justify the Ramadan policy’s broad restrictions of religious liberty. The dissent nevertheless charges that we “use [ ] Keen Mountain’s Ramadan policy as a platform from which to initiate an assault on state correction institutions” and that our “approach exhibits ... distrust” of state prison officials. Post at 46-47. These statements are a harsh indictment, but we trust the dissent will be alone in thinking them to be true. Our directions come straight from RLUI-PA, which Congress enacted because it found that some prisons have restricted religious liberty “in egregious and unnecessary ways.” 146 Cong. Rec. S7775 (July 27, 2000) (joint statement of Sen. Hatch and Sen. Kennedy). Thus, according to RLUIPA, when a prison substantially burdens an inmate’s exercise of religion, the prison must demonstrate that imposing the burden serves a compelling government interest and does so by the least restrictive means. With respect to Lovelace’s claim against the warden, the thrust of our remand simply requires Keen Mountain to make that demonstration. We confirm emphatically that any substantive explanation offered by the prison must be viewed with due deference, notwithstanding the dissent’s claim that we have abandoned “even the pretense of deference,” post at 214.

I.

A.

On September 22, 2002, Warden Lee issued a policy to accommodate Keen Mountain inmates seeking to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. Observant Muslims fast between dawn and sunset during the thirty days of Ramadan. According to the warden’s policy, inmates approved to participate in the fast received special pre-dawn (5:00 to 5:50 a.m.) and post-sunset (6:00 to 7:30 p.m.) meals in two dining halls reserved for fasting inmates of various Islamic denominations: Dining Hall # 1 for “World Community of Islam” inmates and Dining Hall # 2 for Nation of Islam (NOI) inmates.1 J.A. 27. Prayer services were held either before or after the special breakfast meal in each reserved dining hall. Because participating inmates were expected to adhere to the rules of the fasting period as outlined by the World Community and NOI, they could not eat the regular cafeteria meals offered during the daytime. Warden Lee instructed security and food service staff to submit an incident report on any fast participant seen taking a meal tray during daylight hours. Any inmate who violated the policy would be removed from the Ramadan observance pass list, which meant that he would be barred from participating in the fast and, by extension, the morning prayer sessions. In 2002 the month of Ramadan extended from November 5 through December 4.

Lovelace, an NOI member and NOI liaison at Keen Mountain, was among approximately seventy NOI inmates approved to participate in the 2002 Ramadan fast. As *183NOI liaison, he had met with prison staff before the fast began to discuss the Ramadan menu and propose possible menu alternatives. For example, he suggested the substitution of real juice for Kool-Aid because Kool-Aid is “an artificial drink which is in direct conflict with the teachings of [the Islamic] faith.” J.A. 144. Prison officials rejected these suggestions. At breakfast on November 11, roughly six days into the fast, Lovelace and other fast participants discovered that “the milk being served [to them] was beyond its stamped expiration date.” J.A. 17. As NOI liaison, Lovelace informed the kitchen staff about the inmates’ “refusal to accept the expired milk.” Id. The breakfast staff then replaced the seventy to seventy-five individual servings of expired milk with fresh milk. Lovelace describes his interaction with staff as “contentious” and notes that Correctional Officer Lester was the security officer assigned to the kitchen that morning. J.A. 181. Roughly twelve hours later, Lovelace was refused his special evening meal. He was informed that he had been removed from the pass list because, according to an incident report submitted by Officer Lester, he had taken a lunch tray at approximately 12:35 that afternoon, November 11. (The incident report is not in the record, and Lovelace has never seen it.)

Lovelace filed two emergency grievances that evening and two the following morning, asserting that he had not received a lunch tray and had not even entered the dining hall during fasting hours on November 11. The staff denied each of these grievances within several hours on grounds (1) that the grievances did not meet the definition of “emergency” (immediate risk of serious personal injury or irreparable harm) and (2) that Lovelace should instead “address any further complaints” by using the “inmate complaint/request” system. J.A. 37-40. On November 12 Assistant Warden Shinault formally notified Lovelace in writing that he was barred from “participation in Ramadan” because of his infraction the previous day. J.A. 36. Proceeding as he had been instructed, Lovelace filed a complaint with Mike Shaw, the treatment program supervisor, on November 12 or 13. Shaw or his colleague responded on November 13 that “[t]his [matter] will be left to the Chaplain.” J.A. 35. Lovelace filed two additional complaints, one with the warden and one with the assistant warden, on November 13. Lovelace emphasized in the complaints, as he had in the emergency grievances, that he was being denied his right to participate in the Ramadan observance.

On November 14 Lovelace met with Shinault and Shaw and suggested that they review certain evidence to correct Lester’s misidentification and reinstate Lovelace to the Ramadan pass list. This evidence included cafeteria security (surveillance) tapes from the afternoon of November 11 and as many as twenty witnesses who were willing to attest that Lovelace had never left the housing unit during lunchtime that day. Shinault told Lovelace that before ruling on the complaint, he would meet with Lester and show him Lovelace’s “face card,” a photograph kept on file for every inmate, “to confirm Lester’s identification of [Lovelace].” J.A. 79. The following day, November 15, Shinault summoned Lovelace to a meeting and reiterated that Lovelace was ineligible to participate in the Ramadan program because of Lester’s report, which Lester had “verified” (that is, confirmed). J.A. 34. Shinault, however, had not shown Lester the face card as he had said he would. Nor had he reviewed the security tapes or interviewed witnesses, as Lovelace had urged.

Lovelace filed a formal grievance on November 20 or 21, 2002. Warden Lee re*184sponded in a letter dated December 4 (the last day of Ramadan) that Lovelace’s grievance was “unfounded.” J.A. 30. The warden’s letter stated that two officers had spoken with Lester, who said he was “positive that it was [Lovelace] that he observed” eating a non-Ramadan meal. J.A. 30. Lovelace appealed this Level I response to the regional director, asserting that prison officials and staff had failed to respond in a timely and judicious manner and thereby caused him irreparable injury. Regional Director Larry Huffman upheld Warden Lee’s Level I decision with minimal comment. Huffman’s Level II response was dated January 4, 2003, one month after the end of Ramadan. Thus, Lovelace was prevented from fasting and participating in the NOI congregational prayers for twenty-four of Ramadan’s thirty days, from the evening of November 11 through the evening of December 4, 2002.

B.

Having exhausted his administrative remedies as required by the Prison Litigation Reform Act, 42 U.S.C. § 1997e(a), Lovelace filed an action in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Virginia on June 25, 2003. In his pro se complaint Lovelace alleged that Warden Lee, Assistant Warden Shinault, and Officer Lester violated his First Amendment free exercise rights, his Fourteenth Amendment due process rights, and his statutory rights under RLUIPA, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000cc et seq. Lovelace sought a declaratory judgment, injunctive relief, punitive damages, damages for emotional distress and other injuries, and the appointment of counsel. The complaint, read in its entirety, indicates that Lovelace sued Lester in his individual capacity and sued Lee and Shinault in their official and individual capacities.

Shinault and Lester moved for summary judgment on September 10, 2003, before Lee was served with process. They attached to their motion an unexecuted affidavit from Lester. In this affidavit Lester acknowledged for the first time — more than nine months after the end of Ramadan — that he had misidentified another inmate as Lovelace. Lester said that the inmate who took the lunch tray on November 11, 2002, “resembled another inmate named Lovelace, who was no longer at the institution,” and that he only realized this mistake “after the fact.” J.A. 60. In his response Lovelace challenged Lester’s affidavit for being “unsigned and unnotarized” and therefore inadmissible in summary judgment proceedings. J.A. 66-67. In addition, Lovelace submitted evidence to discredit the affidavit’s contents. This evidence included (1) a staff member’s statement, based on a data search, that no other inmate named Lovelace had been housed in the prison in the five years prior to September 22, 2003, and (2) Lovelace’s own statement, made under penalty of perjury, that a “deeper search revealed no other Lovelace ever detained at [the Keen Mountain] facility.” J.A. 68 n. 1. Lovelace further asserted that Lester’s account of innocently mistaking his identity was incredible because Lester was familiar with Lovelace. In particular, Lester participated in a shakedown of Lovelace’s cell (with Lovelace present) about six months prior to November 11, 2002; Lester on many occasions monitored the “chow hall line where ... [Lovelace had] verbally identified himself’ from a distance of roughly two feet; Lester had “numerous instances of incidental interaction with [Lovelace] in the course of normal daily inmate movement”; and Lester worked for three months in the control booth in Lovelace’s housing unit. J.A. 69, 78.

On October 17, 2003, Lester submitted a second, executed affidavit in which he still *185admitted misidentifying Lovelace but changed his explanation. Instead of saying that he had confused Lovelace with another inmate named Lovelace who was no longer at the prison, Lester claimed that he had made an “honest ... mistake[ ]” by confusing Lovelace with “another inmate at the institution that looked like Lovelace.” J.A. 159. Lester acknowledged that several inmates had “come to [him]” during Ramadan (as early as November 12, 2002, according to Lovelace’s evidence) to dispute the identification, insisting that Lovelace had remained in his housing unit during the entire lunch period on November 11, 2002. Id. Yet Lester again alleged, as he had in his first affidavit, that he did not realize his mistake until “after Ramadan was over,” when “someone pointed inmate Lovelace out to [him].” Id. Lovelace objected to Lester’s second affidavit on grounds that it was untimely and “wholly different” from the first. J.A. 116. The district court took the second affidavit into consideration over Lovelace’s objection.

In the meantime, Lovelace made several unsuccessful attempts to locate and serve process on Lee, who was no longer Warden at Keen Mountain and no longer employed by the Virginia Department of Corrections. U.S. Marshals ultimately served Lee on February 18, 2004, although it is “unclear ... whether ... [he] was served with a summons directing his response to the complaint.” J.A. 97. Lee did not respond, and marshals served him again on May 4, 2004. Lee did not respond within the time allowed and on May 28 moved for an enlargement of time, which Lovelace opposed. Before the district court ruled on this motion, Lee filed a motion for summary judgment that paralleled and incorporated by reference Shinault and Lester’s earlier motion. Lovelace countered that Lee had defaulted and therefore lacked standing to move for summary judgment. The district court granted Lee’s motion for enlargement of time, deemed his summary judgment motion to be timely filed, and denied Lovelace’s motion for a default judgment.

The district court granted summary judgment to Lee, Shinault, and Lester on September 13, 2004. The court concluded that the defendants were entitled to qualified immunity on the RLUIPA claim and that “no constitutional violation occurred in relation to the free exercise claim [because] the actions of defendants were negligent rather than intentional.” J.A. 168. The court did not address Lovelace’s due process claim. Lovelace filed a timely appeal and was subsequently assigned counsel.

II.

A.

We first consider Lovelace’s RLUIPA claim. Section 3 of RLUIPA provides that “[n]o government shall impose a substantial burden on the religious exercise of a person residing in or confined to an institution ... even if the burden results from a rule of general applicability,” unless the government demonstrates that the burden is “in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest” and is “the least restrictive means of furthering that ... interest.” Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act of 2000, § 3(a), 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-l(a). “Government” includes any official of a “State, county, municipality, or other governmental entity created under the authority of a State” and any other person “acting under color of State law.” 42 U.S.C. § 2000ce-5(4)(A). Once “a plaintiff produces prima facie evidence to support a claim alleging a violation” of RLUIPA, “the government shall bear the burden of persuasion on any element of the claim, except that the plaintiff shall *186bear the burden of persuasion on whether [the challenged practice or law] substantially burdens the plaintiffs exercise of religion.” Id. § 2000ec-2(b). In particular, the government must prove that the burden in question is the least restrictive means of furthering a compelling governmental interest. Id. § 2000cc~l(a).

Congress crafted RLUIPA in response to Supreme Court decisions holding that laws of general applicability that incidentally burden religious conduct do not offend the First Amendment. See Madison v. Riter, 355 F.3d 310, 314 (4th Cir.2003) (discussing Employment Division v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872, 890, 110 S.Ct. 1595, 108 L.Ed.2d 876 (1990)). In these decisions the Supreme Court “openly invited the political branches to provide greater protection to religious exercise through legislative action.” Id. at 315 (citing Smith, 494 U.S. at 890, 110 S.Ct. 1595). Congress did just that by passing RLUI-PA, mandating a “more searching standard” of review of free exercise burdens than the standard used in parallel constitutional claims: strict scrutiny instead of reasonableness. See Madison, 355 F.3d at 314-15 n. 1; Freeman v. Texas Dep’t of Criminal Justice, 369 F.3d 854, 857-58 n. 1 (5th Cir.2004). In addition to prescribing strict scrutiny, Congress mandated that RLUIPA be construed “in favor of broad protection of religious exercise.” 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-3(g). Congress, in other words, “intended to provide as much protection as possible to prisoners’ religious rights” without overly encumbering prison operations. Murphy v. Mo. Dep’t of Corr., 372 F.3d 979, 987 (8th Cir.2004); see also Cutter v. Wilkinson, 544 U.S. 709, 723, 125 S.Ct. 2113, 161 L.Ed.2d 1020 (2005) (noting that lawmakers supporting RLUIPA “anticipated that courts would apply the Act’s standard with due deference to the experience and expertise of prison and jail administrators”).

RLUIPA’s heightened protection stemmed from Congress’s recognition that the right of inmates (and other institutionalized persons) to practice their faith is “at the mercy of those running the institution.” 146 Cong. Rec. S7775 (July 27, 2000) (joint statement of Sen. Hatch and Sen. Kennedy). As the Supreme Court has stressed, inmates are subject to “a degree of [governmental] control unparalleled in civilian society and severely disabling to private religious exercise.” Cutter, 544 U.S. at 720-21, 125 S.Ct. 2113. Congress thus passed RLUIPA to afford this confined population greater protection of religious exercise than what the Constitution itself affords.

Section 3 of RLUIPA, which protects institutionalized persons, applies to programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance. 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-1(b)(1); see also Cutter, 544 U.S. at 715-16, 125 S.Ct. 2113. Because the Virginia Department of Corrections (VDOC) receives federal monies, section 3 applies to Keen Mountain and to the defendants who are state officials or actors employed there. 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-l(b)(l); see Madison, 355 F.3d at 314 (noting that VDOC received $4.72 million from the federal government in 2002).

1.

Lovelace argues that his inability to observe Ramadan for twenty-four of its thirty days — specifically, his inability to fast during day-light hours and to attend NOI congregational prayers and services — imposed a substantial burden on his religious exercise. RLUIPA broadly defines “religious exercise” to include “any exercise of religion, whether or not compelled by, or central to, a system of religious belief.” 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-5(7)(A). *187Lovelace’s observance of Ramadan, the Islamic holy month of fasting and prayer, qualifies as “religious exercise” under this definition. See Adkins v. Kaspar, 393 F.3d 559, 567-68 (5th Cir.2004) (holding that Sabbath and holy day activities “easily qualify as ‘religious exercise’ under ... RLUIPA’s generous definition”).

We next consider whether the burden was substantial. RLUIPA itself does not define “substantial burden,” but the Supreme Court has defined the term in the related context of the Free Exercise Clause. According to the Court, a “substantial burden” is one that “put[s] substantial pressure on an adherent to modify his behavior and to violate his beliefs,” Thomas v. Review Bd. of Ind. Employment Sec. Div., 450 U.S. 707, 718, 101 S.Ct. 1425, 67 L.Ed.2d 624 (1981), or one that forces a person to “choose between following the precepts of her religion and forfeiting [governmental] benefits, on the one hand, and abandoning one of the precepts of her religion ... on the other hand,” Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398, 404, 83 S.Ct. 1790, 10 L.Ed.2d 965 (1963). Following this model, several other circuits have articulated generally consistent definitions of “substantial burden” under RLUIPA. See, e.g., Adkins, 393 F.3d at 570 (defining it as a burden that “truly pressures the adherent to significantly modify his religious behavior and significantly violate his religious beliefs”); Midrash Sephardi, Inc. v. Town of Surfside, 366 F.3d 1214, 1227 (11th Cir.2004) (“resulting] from pressure that tends to force adherents to forego religious precepts or ... [tends to] mandate[] religious conduct”); San Jose Christian Coll. v. City of Morgan Hill, 360 F.3d 1024, 1034 (9th Cir.2004) (“a significantly great restriction or onus upon [religious] exercise”); Civil Liberties for Urban Believers v. City of Chicago, 342 F.3d 752, 761 (7th Cir.2003) (“[a burden] that necessarily bears direct, primary, and fundamental responsibility for rendering religious exercise ... effectively impracticable”). We likewise follow the Supreme Court’s guidance in the Free Exercise Clause context and conclude that, for RLUIPA purposes, a substantial burden on religious exercise occurs when a state or local government, through act or omission, “put[s] substantial pressure on an adherent to modify his behavior and to violate his beliefs.” Thomas, 450 U.S. at 718, 101 S.Ct. 1425.2

Lovelace’s removal from the Ramadan observance pass list at Keen Mountain qualifies as a substantial burden under RLUIPA. Once removed from the pass list, Lovelace was excluded from special (pre-dawn, post-sunset) Ramadan meals and therefore could not fast during daylight hours. Unable to fast, he could not fulfill one of the five pillars or obligations of Islam. Moreover, during twenty-four of the thirty days of the holy month of Ramadan, he could not participate in NOI group prayers or services held in the dining hall before or after the special breakfast meal. This deprivation is critical because prior to Ramadan the prison accommodated NOI *188inmates by allowing them to attend weekly NOI services. These services were can-celled during Ramadan when the policy was in effect. Thus, when the dissent says that the Keen Mountain “policy [is] clearly a religious accommodation rather than a burden,” post at 207, it overlooks the fact that the policy works to restrict the religious exercise of any NOI inmate who cannot or does not fast, but who still wishes to participate in group services or prayers.3

We have not, as the dissent argues, “taken it upon [ourselves] to create a claim for” Lovelace that the policy imposes a substantial burden on religious exercise. See post at 205. Lovelace filed his papers pro se in district court, but he needs no help from us in articulating his substantial burden claim. He accurately points out that once an inmate is removed from participation in the Ramadan fast under the policy, the policy automatically bars him from participation in congregational religious exercises, such as NOI services and group prayers. The dissent appears to sanction this wholesale removal from group religious exercise by saying that “[t]he breaking of the Ramadan fast suggests a lack of genuine interest in any Ramadan activity,” including group prayers. Post at 213. We recognize, of course, that “prison officials may appropriately question whether a prisoner’s religiosity, asserted as a basis for a requested accommodation [here, pre-dawn and post-sunset meals to allow daytime fasting], is authentic.” Cutter, 544 U.S. at 725 n. 13, 125 S.Ct. 2113. An inmate, however, could decide not to be religious about fasting and still be religious about other practices, such as congregational services or group prayer. Such an inmate’s right to religious exercise is substantially burdened by a policy, like the one here, that automatically assumes that lack of sincerity (or religiosity) with respect to one practice means lack of sincerity with respect to others. RLUIPA does not permit either prison administrators or courts to make such a blanket assumption. See 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-5(7)(A) (providing protection for “any exercise of religion”) (emphasis added); see also Reed v. Faulkner, 842 F.2d 960, 963 (7th Cir.1988) (recognizing “the fact that a person [who] does not adhere steadfastly to every tenant of his faith” may still be sincere about participating in some religious practices).

It makes no difference to this analysis that the burden on Lovelace’s religious exercise resulted from discipline (punishment for his alleged infraction), rather than from the prison’s failure to accommodate his religious needs in the first instance. See McEachin v. McGuinnis, 357 F.3d 197, 204 (2d Cir.2004) (“Courts have ... found free exercise violations in cases where generally applicable prison policies were designed to accommodate inmates’ religious dietary requirements, but the same allowances were not made for inmates subjected to disciplinary restrictions.”); Makin v. Colo. Dep’t of Corr., 183 F.3d 1205, 1211-14 (10th Cir.1999) (upholding district court’s determination that denial of special Ramadan meals to inmate confined in punitive segregation violated *189Free Exercise Clause). The dissent quarrels with our use of the word “punishment” to describe the action taken against Lovelace by the prison when it concluded, in the defendants’ words, that Lovelace “flout[ed] prison rules” established to accommodate the Ramadan observance. J.A. at 57. Regardless of how Lovelace’s removal from the Ramadan pass list is characterized, our point is that RLUIPA’s protections may apply even though Lovelace’s alleged rule infraction triggered his wholesale exclusion from group religious observances and exercises.

The dissent argues that there can be no substantial burden here because the Keen Mountain Ramadan policy simply combines two religious exercises into one “event” or observance, “a [pre- or post-fast] meal accompanied by prayers.” Post at 208. This argument ignores a critical fact emphasized above: during Ramadan the prison cancelled regular NOI services and precluded other gatherings for group prayer. Thus, as Lovelace spells out in his own words: when he was removed from the pass list, “he was effectively prohibited from exercising his religious beliefs because he was not permitted to fast, not permitted to attend NOI religious services, not permitted to attend Friday [Jumu'ah] services, and not permitted to participate in group prayers.” J.A. 73 (punctuation and numbering omitted). The policy was therefore arranged and written so that disqualification from participation in one religious exercise (the fast) meant that normal avenues for communal worship (group services and prayers) at the prison became unavailable automatically. When this broad disqualification aspect of the policy was applied to Lovelace, he was forced to “significantly modify his religious behavior,” Adkins, 393 F.3d at 570, and his RLUIPA right to religious exercise was substantially burdened. Expecting prison officials to recognize that the denial of routinely allowed religious exercises is a burden should not “drive [them] crazy” or “exceed [their] knowledge or understanding” of religious practices, as the dissent claims will be the case. Post at 209.4

The dissent would excuse the burdensome or restrictive aspects of the policy from any scrutiny because the purpose of the policy was to allow inmates, under a prescribed program, to observe Ramadan. But a policy can have a laudable purpose, as this one did, and still impose a substantial burden on religious exercise, as this one did in Lovelace’s case. That does not end the RLUIPA analysis, however, because the policy’s burdens or restrictions could be justified by compelling considerations of security or good order. The prison will therefore have the opportunity to present its rationale on remand, as we make clear in the discussion that follows.

2.

Because Lovelace has demonstrated that he suffered a substantial burden on his religious exercise, the burden shifts to the defendants to show that the Ramadan policy’s strict (and broad) removal provision is the least restrictive means of furthering a compelling governmental interest. “ ‘Context matters’ ” in applying this “compelling governmental interest” standard. Cutter, 544 U.S. at 723, 125 S.Ct. 2113 (quoting Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306, 327, 123 S.Ct. 2325, 156 L.Ed.2d 304 (2003)). Courts should apply *190this standard with “due deference to the experience and expertise of prison and jail administrators in establishing necessary regulations and procedures to maintain good order, security and discipline, consistent with consideration of costs and limited resources.” Id. at 723, 125 S.Ct. 2113 (quoting joint statement of Sen. Hatch and Sen. Kennedy, RLUIPA’s co-sponsors); see also Murphy, 372 F.3d at 987-88 (discussing legislative history). Of these enumerated concerns, security deserves “particular sensitivity.” Cutter, 544 U.S. at 722, 125 S.Ct. 2113. RLUIPA, in other words, is not meant to “elevate accommodation of religious observances over an institution’s need to maintain order and safety.” Id.

The dissent charges repeatedly that we ignore our own “exhortation[ ] ... [to give] due deference to the experience and expertise of prison and jail administrators.” Post at 211. (Quotation marks and citations omitted); see also, e.g., post at 211 (labeling majority’s position as the “majority’s no-deferenee approach” or the “majority’s no-deference view”). While our approach does suggest that a court should not rubber stamp or mechanically accept the judgments of prison administrators, see Shimer v. Washington, 100 F.3d 506, 510 (7th Cir.1996), our approach underscores that those judgments must nevertheless be viewed through the lens of due deference. Here, the first job is to require Keen Mountain to take the unremarkable step of providing an explanation for the policy’s restrictions that takes into account any institutional need to maintain good order, security, and discipline or to control costs. That explanation, when it comes, will be afforded due deference.

The defendants have not adequately demonstrated on this record that the Ramadan policy is the least restrictive means of furthering a compelling governmental interest. They assert simply a “legitimate interest in removing inmates from religious dietary programs where the inmate flouts prison rules reasonably established in order to accommodate the program.” J.A. 57. They do not elaborate how this articulated “legitimate interest” qualifies as compelling; they do not present any evidence with respect to the policy’s security or budget implications. Cf. Makin, 183 F.3d at 1213-14 (observing, in a First Amendment case, that prison policy denying Ramadan meals served no legitimate governmental interest owing to the lack of evidence that the policy served asserted interests in deterrence, rehabilitation, security, and cost saving). Given the superficial nature of the defendants’ explanation, we cannot at this stage conclude that the asserted interest is compelling as a matter of law.

The dissent contends that we “fail[ ] to recognize [the] compelling governmental interest^]” here. Post at 211. Specifically, we are faulted for failing to appreciate matters such as “the number of inmates Keen Mountain prison administrators supervise, the budgetary restrictions they labor under, the staffing problems they encounter,” post at 210, or what risks they face in controlling the prison dining rooms and releasing inmates from their cells before dawn and after dark. We discuss none of these matters because none of them are advanced by the prison in the policy or elsewhere as justifications for the policy’s burdens on religious exercise. In short, the dissent’s assertion that the Ramadan policy was “enacted with safety and security considerations front and center,” post at 211, is not verified by any statement placed into the summary judgment record by a Keen Mountain official. This shortcoming distinguishes this case from Beard v. Banks, 548 U.S. -, 126 S.Ct. 2572, 165 L.Ed.2d 697 (2006) (plurality), *191which the dissent cites to suggest that we are not deferring to the judgment of the prison officials. See post at 204, 211. The plaintiff-inmate in Beard brought a First Amendment challenge against a prison policy that denied newspapers and other materials to a group of dangerous and recalcitrant inmates. There, a thorough official explanation of the penological rationales for the policy led the Supreme Court to defer to the prison authorities on the summary judgment record. Specifically, in Beard, where the prison had only to show a “legitimate interest,” the deputy prison superintendent had provided an undisputed deposition and affidavit explaining, among other things, why “the regulations do, in fact, serve the [penological] function identified.” Beard, 126 S.Ct. at 2579. Here, in contrast, where RLUIPA requires the prison to show a “compelling interest,” we have no sworn statement from the warden, the assistant warden, or any other prison official that discusses any security, safety, or cost consideration that justifies the restrictions in the Ramadan policy. That is the fundamental problem presented in this appeal, and it cannot be solved, as the dissent would solve it, by a court suggesting on its own the governmental interest that might be present.

The dissent also argues that the policy’s restrictions on religious exercise justify themselves because the policy itself has explicit security procedures for “keeping track of inmates and their out-of-cell-activities” as they participate in the Ramadan program. Post at 212-213. The inclusion of details in the policy for its orderly and safe execution, however, does not explain why the prison had a compelling basis for eliminating a prisoner’s access to established congregational services because of an asserted failure to observe the fast.

RLUIPA assigns to the prison the burden of proving that the policy’s restrictions further a compelling governmental interest. 42 U.S.C. § 2000cc-2(b). If the dissent’s assumptions about the governmental interests involved here had been included in an affidavit by the warden or some other Keen Mountain official, the district court would have been presented with a different case on summary judgment. But, as matters stand, we are doing nothing more than requiring the prison to meet its burden under RLUIPA.

Even if we assume that the asserted governmental interest is compelling, the defendants have not shown that the policy, more precisely its removal provision, is the least restrictive means of furthering this interest. The removal provision is far reaching in that it excludes inmates not only from the special Ramadan meals but also from the Ramadan prayer services held in the dining hall immediately before or after the morning meal. An NOI inmate, such as Lovelace, had no other options for congregational worship. Regular NOI Friday services were cancelled by the prison during Ramadan. Moreover, Lovelace could not attend any related Muslim services as a substitute for NOI services during the thirty-day span. The prison prohibits inmates from attending more than one religious group’s services in a calendar quarter. Because Lovelace had signed up for NOI services, he could not attend Friday Jumu'ah (Muslim) services as an alternative to the daily NOI prayers. To the extent that the removal provision prohibits both special meal and group prayer access, the prison Ramadan policy is arguably not the least restrictive means of furthering the asserted governmental interest. Thus, at this stage, the defendants have not demonstrated that the pris*192on policy satisfies the strict requirements of RLUIPA.5

The dissent contends that the remand we order turns “the least restrictive means test [into] a tool by which lower courts may endlessly second-guess prison officials.” Post at 214. To the contrary, we instruct the district court to do what RLUIPA commands: assess with due deference any explanation by the prison as to why denying an inmate who breaches the fast the opportunity to participate in other religious observances is the least restrictive way to deal with a compelling problem. There is no basis in this case for a court to do what the dissent urges, that is, to declare the least restrictive means test satisfied without any substantive explanation from prison officials.6

We pause to emphasize that our decision today will not, as the dissent predicts, “thrust [the federal courts] into a role ... of micromanaging state prisons.” Post at 204. We also emphasize that the dissent’s approach of coming up with its own justification for the Ramadan policy’s burdens on free exercise essentially exempts prison administrators from RLUIPA’s requirements. To begin with, the dissent’s argument that our decision will thrust courts into the middle of prison management is repeated and, indeed, pressed to the point that it calls itself into question. See, e.g., post at 204 (“the majority has turned [RLUIPA] into an administrative nightmare for the state penal institutions”); id. (“the majority subjects even the most progressive of policies to the most intrusive judicial supervision”); post at 204 (“the majority’s remand ... is [] an invitation to finetune prison policy from the judicial perch”); post at 205 (“the majority transforms [RLUIPA] into an administratively unworkable ... quagmire”); post at 210 (“the majority’s no-deference approach is synonymous with federal court control of routine prison policy”); post at 211 (“the majority ... invites lower courts to substitute their own judgment for that of prison *193officials”); post at 211 (“the majority’s approach would soon draw federal courts into the minute details of penal institutions”); post at 215 (“the majority ... invites an open-ended and potentially wide-ranging inquiry into prison administration”); id. (the “remand is itself an instruction to the district court to delve into minute prison details”); post at 215 (the majority’s “approach of remanding ... will have prison administrators chasing their tails” and permit “lower courts [to] endlessly second-guess prison officials”); and post at 218 (“the majority has placed federal courts at the center of daily prison policymaking”).

Today’s remand provides nothing akin to a license for courts to plunge into prison policymaking or prison management. We merely require that the prison itself explain in a responsive fashion why the Ramadan policy’s burdens on religious exercise are justified under RLUIPA’s standard. It is our dissenting colleague who delves into prison policymaking by coming up with his own reasons as to why the policy’s restrictions are necessary to insure safety and security. If a court could, as the dissent would have it, offer explanations on its own, then prisons would be effectively relieved of their responsibilities under RLUIPA. Or what is more fundamental, court-generated explanations would cut severely against Congress’s intent to provide inmates with greater protections in the area of religious exercise.

3.

The dissent insists that all potential culpability for Lovelace’s total inability to participate in any form of communal religious observance during Ramadan lies with Officer Lester alone. But Lester did not cancel regular NOI services, nor did he decide that inmates not observing the fast would be not able to participate in group services. A prison official made these decisions, and these decisions must be measured against RLUIPA’s standards. The Act’s laudable goal of providing greater religious liberty for prisoners will be thwarted unless those who run state prisons — wardens and superintendents acting in their official capacities — satisfy their statutory duty. That duty is to ensure and demonstrate that a compelling government interest is present and the least restrictive means are used when an inmate’s religious exercise is substantially burdened. Ordering a remand to give the appropriate Keen Mountain official the opportunity to make the required demonstration is not meant to punish the prison, as the dissent suggests. See post at 201. Rather, it is a directive for the prison official to do what Congress mandates in RLUIPA. If only prison guards are held to account, RLUIPA will never be a true “expression of our nation’s commitment to religious freedom.” See id. at 37-38.

4.

Insofar as Lovelace purports to sue Lee and Shinault in their official capacities for issuing a policy whose text violates RLUIPA, there is a claim only against Lee. It was Warden Lee, not Assistant Warden Shinault, who issued the challenged policy as an official of the Commonwealth. For the reasons just discussed, Lovelace survives summary judgment on the merits of the official-capacity claim against Lee. On this claim, Lovelace seeks declaratory and injunctive relief as well as money damages. Damages are not recoverable on this claim because in another opinion filed today, our court holds that a state’s Eleventh Amendment immunity from suit for damages is not waived in RLUIPA. Madison v. Commonwealth of Va., No. 06-6266, 474 F.3d 118, 2006 WL 3823181 (4th Cir.2006)(Madison II). The official-capacity claim against Lee will nev*194ertheless proceed because non-monetary relief is sought, and qualified immunity is not available. See Ridpath v. Bd. of Governors of Marshall Univ., 447 F.3d 292, 306 (4th Cir.2006). We will therefore vacate the summary judgment for Lee on the RLUIPA claim against him in his official capacity.

B.

1.

Having addressed Lovelace’s claim that the policy as issued violates RLUIPA, we now consider his claim that the defendants applied the policy in violation of RLUIPA. Lovelace asserts this claim against the defendants in their individual capacities, not as officials of the Commonwealth. As noted above, RLUIPA liability exists only when a defendant (1) fits the statutory definition of “government” (which includes state officials and those acting under color of state law) and (2) imposes a “substantial burden” on an inmate’s religious exercise without compelling justification. The defendants meet the definition of “government,” and they arguably imposed a substantial burden without compelling justification when they barred Lovelace from Ramadan observance and other religious exercise, as indicated earlier. To hold the defendants liable as individuals, Lovelace must further prove that they acted with the requisite intent. Although RLUIPA itself contains no state-of-mind standard, a fault requirement consistent with Congress’s purpose must be incorporated from customary tort principles. Of course, tort law’s spectrum of fault ranges from negligence to intentionality.

We conclude that simple negligence, the “lowest common denominator of customary tort liability,” does not suffice to meet the fault requirement under section 3 of RLUIPA. County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 848-49, 118 S.Ct. 1708, 140 L.Ed.2d 1043 (1998). Adoption of the negligence standard would open prison officials to unprecedented liability for burdening an inmate’s religious exercise. The landscape of liability for prison officials is determined, in large part, by constitutional provisions. “[T]he Constitution does not guarantee due care on the part of state officials; liability for negligently inflicted harm is categorically beneath the threshold” of constitutional protections. Id. at 849, 118 S.Ct. 1708. In such terrain, it would be a very long step to sanction negligence suits under RLUIPA. As we observed in Pink v. Lester, 52 F.3d 73, 77 (4th Cir.1995), a due process and First Amendment case: “Absent a contrary instruction from Congress, we are reluctant to increase the already steady stream of litigation produced in [the prison] setting by sanctioning negligence suits that serve no constitutional ends.” This expression of reluctance applies with equal force to RLUIPA cases because, as the Supreme Court explained, “[ljawmakers supporting RLUIPA were mindful of the urgency of discipline, order, safety, and security in penal institutions.” Cutter, 544 U.S. at 723, 125 S.Ct. 2113. Congress intended for RLUIPA to be applied “in an appropriately balanced way,” with “due deference to the experience and expertise of prison and jail administrators.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).

Allowing negligence suits to proceed under RLUIPA would undermine this deference by exposing prison officials to an unduly high level of judicial scrutiny.

Turning from the low end to the high end of the culpability spectrum, we conclude that RLUIPA at least reaches intentional conduct because that is what the Free Exercise Clause reaches. See Employment Div. v. Smith, 494 U.S. at 890, 110 S.Ct. 1595; Shaheed v. Winston, 885 *195F.Supp. 861, 868 (ED.Va.1996). As we said earlier, Congress passed RLUIPA to give institutionalized persons greater protection of religious exercise than what the Constitution affords. Because the Constitution prohibits intentional burdens on free exercise, RLUIPA must, at a minimum, prohibit these burdens as well. Here, Lovelace alleges that the defendants’ conduct was intentional. We therefore need not decide today whether RLUIPA reaches beyond the Free Exercise Clause to prohibit conduct, such as deliberate indifference, that is less than intentional but more than negligent.

2.

Lovelace presents enough evidence of culpability to survive Officer Lester’s motion for summary judgment on the RLUIPA claim. The evidence raises a genuine question whether Lester acted intentionally in depriving Lovelace of his free exercise rights.

Lester was the correctional officer on duty during Lovelace’s contentious confrontation with kitchen staff over the expired milk on the morning of November 11, 2002. Later that day, Lester submitted an incident report wrongly identifying Lovelace as receiving a lunch tray. As Ramadan dwindled away over the next several weeks, Lester repeatedly insisted that he had seen Lovelace take a lunch tray when questioned by Assistant Warden Shinault, fellow officers, and inmates. He never once wavered, even when faced with evidence from other inmates that he might have erred. It was not until he faced a lawsuit in September 2003, more than nine months after the end of Ramadan, that Lester finally admitted his error. He submitted two affidavits (the first unexecuted) in September and October 2003 giving inconsistent explanations for his error. He first claimed that he had mistakenly identified an inmate who resembled another Keen Mountain inmate named Lovelace. Lovelace, in a verified response, asserted that a data search revealed that no other inmate named Lovelace had ever been housed at the facility. Lester then submitted his second affidavit, changing his explanation to state that he had simply confused Lovelace with another inmate. Cf. Vathekan v. Prince George’s County, 154 F.3d 173, 180 (4th Cir.1998) (noting that contradiction between witness’s sworn and unsworn statements “creates a question about his credibility”).

As it turns out, Lester was familiar with Lovelace when he made what he claimed was an honest mistake by misidentifying him. Lester had searched Lovelace’s cell in Lovelace’s presence approximately six months prior to the Ramadan incident on November 11, 2002, and he had often monitored the chow hall line where Lovelace was required to identify himself at close range. In addition, Lester had worked in the control booth in Lovelace’s housing unit, and the two had had routine interaction on many occasions. Even if Lester had been unfamiliar with Lovelace at the time of the incident and had been uncertain about the identification, he could simply have checked the suspect inmate’s I.D. card in the cafeteria. Inmates carry I.D. cards with them at all times, and (according to Lovelace) it is “standard procedure for security personnel to demand of an inmate his I.D. card in order to retrieve the inmate’s name and I.D. number prior to writing an incident report.” J.A. 79. When questioned by fellow officers and inmates in the days following the incident, Lester could easily have checked Lovelace’s face card on file or other evidence, such as cafeteria videotapes from the afternoon of November 11. Instead, Lester “refused even to entertain the possibility that he had mistakenly identified another inmate as Lovelace.” J.A. 147.

*196This proffered evidence indicates intentional conduct, which is surely sufficient to establish fault under RLUIPA. A reasonable fact-finder could conclude that Lester acted intentionally, perhaps even maliciously, in misidentifying Lovelace and in failing to correct his error during the remainder of Ramadan 2002. We therefore hold that Lester is not entitled to summary judgment on the merits of the RLUIPA claim.

In contrast, Lovelace’s evidence does not support a determination that Assistant Warden Shinault and Warden Lee acted with the requisite degree of culpability to be held liable in their individual capacities under RLUIPA. Shinault and Lee at most acted negligently by not reinstating Lovelace to the Ramadan pass list. Shinault met with Lovelace on November 14, listened to his grievances, and later that day or the next confirmed with Lester that he had indeed seen Lovelace retrieve the lunch tray on November 11. Although Shinault had promised Lovelace that he would show Lester a face card to confirm the identification, Shinault’s failure to do so does not prove intent to deprive Lovelace of his religious exercise rights. It simply reveals that Shinault was satisfied with Lester’s identification after Lester “again confirmed” that he had “seen [Lovelace] eating a [lunchtime] meal.” J.A. 34, 79. Lee, in turn, reviewed the documents attached to Lovelace’s grievance. He concluded that the grievance was “unfounded” based on this review and the inquiries of two officers, who had earlier questioned Lester as a result of Lovelace’s insistence that Lester had erred. Lester assured these officers that he was “positive” he had seen Lovelace eat a non-Ramadan meal. J.A. 30.

While Shinault’s and Lee’s efforts to ensure accuracy ultimately proved inadequate — the misidentification went uncorrected for months — they suggest only negligence, not intentional conduct with respect to Lovelace’s religious exercise rights. That is, their decision to trust Lester’s confirmation reflects at most a failure to take due care with respect to the risk that Lester was mistaken or deceptive. Summary judgment in favor of Shinault and Lee in their individual capacities was thus proper on the RLUIPA claim.

C.

The question remains whether Officer Lester is entitled to summary judgment on qualified immunity grounds. Qualified immunity is an affirmative defense that shields public officers performing discretionary duties from “liability for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818, 102 S.Ct. 2727, 73 L.Ed.2d 396 (1982).7 Here, the district court erroneously granted Lester qualified immunity on the premise that *197there was uncertainty about RLUIPA’s constitutionality at the time of the alleged violation.

We apply a two-step analysis in assessing whether qualified immunity is available. See Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 200-01, 121 S.Ct. 2151, 150 L.Ed.2d 272 (2001). We first consider whether the facts alleged, taken in the light most favorable to Lovelace, show that Lester violated Lovelace’s statutory rights under RLUIPA. Lovelace satisfies this part of the test, as our earlier discussion establishes. Second, we consider whether these statutory rights were clearly established at the time of the claimed violation. See id. For a right to be clearly established, the “contours of the right must be sufficiently clear that a reasonable official would understand that what he is doing violates that right.” Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640, 107 S.Ct. 3034, 97 L.Ed.2d 523 (1987).

Chronology and the origins of RLUIPA inform our analysis of whether the rights in question were clearly established at the time Lovelace was removed from the Ramadan pass list. RLUIPA was enacted in September 2000; the alleged violation occurred more than two years later, November and December 2002. RLUIPA was a modified version of the earlier RFRA, enacted in 1993, which the Supreme Court invalidated as it applied to states and localities with its decision in City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507, 117 S.Ct. 2157, 138 L.Ed.2d 624 (1997). See Madison, 355 F.3d at 314-15 (discussing RFRA’s partial invalidation and RLUI-PA’s subsequent enactment). In passing RLUIPA, Congress “resurrected RFRA’s language, but narrowed the scope of the act, limiting it to laws and regulations concerning institutionalized persons or land use.” Murphy, 372 F.3d at 987. As an additional change, Congress “sought to avoid Boeme’s constitutional barrier by relying on its Spending and Commerce Clause powers, rather than on its remedial powers under section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment as it had in RFRA.” Madison, 355 F.3d at 315. Congress thereby aimed to avoid the constitutional problems that plagued RFRA. See 146 Cong. Rec. S7775 (July 27, 2000) (joint statement of Sen. Hatch and Sen. Kennedy). Even without this indication, RLUI-PA, like all acts of Congress, carried a strong presumption of constitutionality. See United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc., 513 U.S. 64, 73, 115 S.Ct. 464, 130 L.Ed.2d 372 (1994) (“[W]e do not impute to Congress an intent to pass legislation that is inconsistent with the Constitution as construed by this Court.”). Federal laws, in other words, do not need judicial approval to take effect and be clearly established. See Schwenk v. Hartford, 204 F.3d 1187, 1204 (9th Cir.2000) (“State officials are ... not entitled ... to ignore a new federal law in the hopes that a court will subsequently strike it down. If officials choose to ignore a federal law, they do so at their own peril.”).

Section 3 of RLUIPA nonetheless encountered some hurdles before the Supreme Court declared it constitutional under the Establishment Clause in Cutter v. Wilkinson, 544 U.S. at 719-26, 125 S.Ct. 2113. Prior to that decision, the Fourth, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits had upheld the provision under the Establishment Clause while the Sixth Circuit had invalidated it. Id. at 718-19, 125 S.Ct. 2113.

The district court relied on one such circuit case, our decision in Madison v. Riter, 355 F.3d at 322, in ruling that Lester was entitled to qualified immunity. Citing Madison, the district court stated that RLUIPA “pose[s] difficult problems for constitutional scholars” and was therefore not clearly established law at the time of the alleged violation. J.A. 170. This *198rationale is problematic for two reasons. First, we issued our opinion in Madison on December 8, 2003, more than a year after the alleged violation at Keen Mountain. (Indeed, all of the circuit court opinions cited in Cutter were decided after November 2002. 544 U.S. at 718, 125 S.Ct. 2113.) Second, we held that RLUIPA was constitutional in Madison, not unconstitutional; surely Madison cannot be grounds for questioning RLUIPA’s constitutionality and status as a clearly established federal law. 355 F.3d at 322. It is true, as Lester points out, that our decision in Madison reversed the district court decision declaring the RLUIPA section incompatible with the Establishment Clause. Madison v. Riter, 240 F.Supp.2d 566, 582 (W.D.Va.2003), rev’d, 355 F.3d 310 (4th Cir.2003). Yet even the district court opinion in Madison, decided January 23, 2003, came after the November 2002 incident here. In fact, no court had invalidated the provision before November 2002. Lester therefore cannot rely on the opinions that he cites, nor on any opinion invalidating the RLUI-PA provision, in arguing that RLUIPA’s constitutionality was unsettled at the time of the incident. See Wilson v. Layne, 141 F.3d 111, 117 (4th Cir.1998) (en banc), aff'd, 526 U.S. 603, 119 S.Ct. 1692, 143 L.Ed.2d 818 (1999) (noting that reliance on decisions issued after the events underlying the litigation, whether issued by this court or others, is inappropriate for qualified immunity purposes). Once RLUIPA took effect, it carried a presumption of constitutionality. See X-Citement Video, Inc., 513 U.S. at 73, 115 S.Ct. 464. Lester should have proceeded as though RLUIPA was constitutional and conformed his conduct accordingly. See Schwenk, 204 F.3d at 1204.

The question still remains whether a reasonable prison guard should have known that the conduct attributed to Lester violated Lovelace’s free exercise rights under RLUIPA. The inquiry of whether a right is clearly established “must be undertaken in light of the specific context of the case, not as a broad general proposition.” Saucier, 533 U.S. at 201, 121 S.Ct. 2151. The right, in other words, must be clearly established in a “particularized, and hence more relevant, sense.” Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640, 107 S.Ct. 3034. Although “[a] prior case holding identical conduct to be unlawful is not required” for the right to be clearly established, the unlawfulness of the conduct must be “manifest under existing authority.” Vathekan, 154 F.3d at 179; see also Hope v. Pelzer, 536 U.S. 730, 739, 122 S.Ct. 2508, 153 L.Ed.2d 666 (2002).

Because the facts support an inference that Lester acted intentionally in depriving Lovelace of his free exercise rights, Lester is not entitled to summary judgment on qualified immunity grounds. Although the outer boundaries of RLUIPA may have been uncharted at the time, its core protections were not. As explained earlier, RLUIPA incorporates and exceeds the Constitution’s basic protections of religious exercise.8 Under both the Free Ex-*199ercise Clause and RLUIPA in its most elemental form, a prisoner has a “clearly established ... right to a diet consistent with his ... religious scruples,” including proper food during Ramadan. Ford v. McGinnis, 352 F.3d 582, 597 (2d Cir.2003); see also McEachin, 357 F.3d at 203-04 & n. 7 (collecting cases). A prison official violates this clearly established right if he intentionally and without sufficient justification denies an inmate his religiously mandated diet. See Meyer v. Teslik, 411 F.Supp.2d 983, 991 (W.D.Wis.2006). Thus, under both the First Amendment and any straightforward interpretation of RLUI-PA, the unlawfulness of intentional and unjustified deprivations of Ramadan meals was apparent at the time of the incident.

Lester’s state of mind is therefore critical to determining whether a reasonable person in his position would have understood that his conduct violated clearly established rights. If Lovelace succeeds in showing that Lester intentionally blocked his observance of Ramadan in violation of RLUIPA’s basic protections, then Lester would not be entitled to qualified immunity. Because there is on this record a genuine issue of material fact as to whether Lester intentionally and purposefully infringed Lovelace’s free exercise rights— rights clearly established at the time under RLUIPA and the First Amendment — Lester is not entitled to qualified immunity at this stage on the RLUIPA claim. See Vathekan, 154 F.3d at 179-80; Poe v. Haydon, 853 F.2d 418, 426 (6th Cir.1988).

III.

We turn now to Lovelace’s constitutional claims under the Free Exercise and Due Process Clauses. He brings these claims under 42 U.S.C. § 1983.

A.

Lovelace contends that the prison Ramadan policy violated his rights under the Free Exercise Clause. “Prison walls do not form a barrier separating prison inmates from the protections of the Constitution.” Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 84, 107 S.Ct. 2254, 96 L.Ed.2d 64 (1987). Inmates “clearly retain protections afforded by the First Amendment, including its directive that no law shall prohibit the free exercise of religion.” O’Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 342, 348, 107 S.Ct. 2400, 96 L.Ed.2d 282 (1987) (citation omitted). Inmates’ constitutional rights must be evaluated within the context of their incarceration, however. The Supreme Court has long cautioned that “courts are ill equipped to deal with the increasingly urgent problems of prison administration.” Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 405, 94 S.Ct. 1800, 40 L.Ed.2d 224 (1974). “Running a prison is an inordinately difficult undertaking,” and the task is “peculiarly within the province of the legislative and executive branches of government.” Turner, 482 U.S. at 84-85, 107 S.Ct. 2254. As a consequence, courts must accord deference to the officials who run a prison, overseeing and coordinating its many aspects, including security, discipline, and general administration. O’Lone, 482 U.S. at 349-50, 107 S.Ct. 2400; Turner, 482 U.S. at 84-85, 107 S.Ct. 2254. This deference is achieved in part through application of a reasonableness test that is less restrictive than the test ordinarily applied to alleged infringements of fundamental constitutional rights. O’Lone, 482 U.S. at 349, 107 S.Ct. 2400. A prison regulation that abridges inmates’ constitutional rights is “valid if it is reasonably related to legitimate penological interests.” Turner, 482 U.S. at 89, 107 S.Ct. 2254. Thus, as noted earlier, the First Amend*200ment affords less protection to inmates’ free exercise rights than does RLUIPA. See, e.g., Freeman, 369 F.3d at 857-58 n. 1.

1.

Lovelace alleges that the prison Ramadan policy “fail[s] to meet an objectively reasonable standard” as required under Turner. J.A. 21. Lovelace challenges the policy’s broad removal provision, which reads: “Inmates who are observed at other meals will be removed from participation.” J.A. 27. He focuses on the restrictions on religious exercise that flow from removal from the Ramadan program. These restrictions imposed a substantial burden on Lovelace’s right to practice his religion, as we have made clear in part H.A.I., supra. See also O’Lone, 482 U.S. at 345, 107 S.Ct. 2400 (implicitly recognizing the substantial burden placed on Muslim prisoners by a policy that prevented them from attending weekly congregational services, but holding that prison regulations in question did not violate First Amendment). The defendants cannot justify restricting Lovelace’s free exercise rights merely because he allegedly violated a rule and was subject to discipline. See, e.g., McEachin, 357 F.3d at 204-05; Ford, 352 F.3d at 597; Makin, 183 F.3d at 1213-14; Young v. Coughlin, 866 F.2d 567, 570 (2d Cir.1989). Rather, a prisoner’s free exercise rights may only be restricted by punitive measures to the extent that these measures are “reasonably adapted to achieving a legitimate penological objective.” Young, 866 F.2d at 570. That is, the punitive measures must meet the reasonableness test set forth in Turner.

The Turner test asks: (1) whether there is a “valid, rational connection” between the prison regulation or action and the interest asserted by the government, or whether this interest is “so remote as to render the policy arbitrary or irrational”; (2) whether “alternative means of exercising the right ... remain open to prison inmates,” an inquiry that asks broadly whether inmates were deprived of all forms of religious exercise or whether they were able to participate in other observances of their faith; (3) what impact the desired accommodation would have on security staff, inmates, and the allocation of prison resources; and (4) whether there exist any “obvious, easy alternatives” to the challenged regulation or action, which may suggest that it is “not reasonable, but is [instead] an exaggerated response to prison concerns.” Turner, 482 U.S. at 89-92, 107 S.Ct. 2254 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).

The district court never examined the Turner factors in granting summary judgment to the defendants. The court based its decision entirely on the defendants’ state of mind, concluding that “no constitutional violation occurred in relation to the free exercise claim as the actions of defendants were negligent rather than intentional.” J.A. 168. Asking whether the defendants acted with the requisite intent in implementing the policy does not, however, address whether the policy by its own terms violates the Free Exercise Clause. More precisely, it does not address Lovelace’s claim against Lee for issuing the policy in his official capacity as Warden of Keen Mountain. We therefore vacate summary judgment in favor of Lee in his official capacity on the free exercise claim insofar as Lovelace seeks declaratory and injunctive relief.9

*2012.

We next consider the defendants’ state of mind in removing Lovelace from the pass list and in failing to reinstate him. The district court rightly concluded that only intentional conduct is actionable under the Free Exercise Clause. To this end, the district court first noted that 42 U.S.C. § 1983, the basis for Lovelace’s First Amendment claim, does not include an independent state-of-mind requirement. See Daniels, 474 U.S. at 329-30, 106 S.Ct. 662. Section 1983’s state-of-mind requirement is instead controlled by the underlying constitutional right allegedly infringed. See id. at 330, 106 S.Ct. 662.

In Daniels the Supreme Court held that an official’s negligent act does not implicate the Due Process Clause. Id. at 328, 106 S.Ct. 662; see also Pink, 52 F.3d at 75. The Court reasoned that the language and purpose of the Due Process Clause require a showing of “some measure of deliberateness,” lest the Fourteenth Amendment become a “ ‘font of tort law to be superimposed upon whatever systems may already be administered by the States.’ ” Pink, 52 F.3d at 75 (discussing Daniels and quoting Paul v. Davis, 424 U.S. 693, 701, 96 S.Ct. 1155, 47 L.Ed.2d 405 (1976)). In Pink v. Lester we indicated that this rationale would apply equally to the First Amendment “right to petition the government for redress of grievances,” since the operative word “abridge” in the First Amendment closely parallels the operative word “deprive” in the Fourteenth Amendment, and in fact both words originally shared the same meaning. Pink, 52 F.3d at 76-77; see id. at 76 (“Just as ‘deprivation’ suggests an intentional denial, an ‘abridgement’ connotes a conscious act [rather than a merely negligent one].”). Both Pink and Daniels arose in the prison context, and we stressed in Pink that absent a directive from Congress, courts should be wary of interfering with the operations of state penal institutions by “sanctioning^ 1983] negligence suits that serve no constitutional ends” but impose substantial social costs (including unduly inhibiting government officials in their duties by increasing their fears of monetary liability). Pink, 52 F.3d at 77 (citing Anderson, 483 U.S. at 638, 107 S.Ct. 3034).

The district court extended the analysis in Daniels and Pink to Lovelace’s First Amendment free exercise claim, reasoning that the operative word “prohibit” in the First Amendment likewise connotes a “conscious act” rather than a merely negligent one. J.A. 171. Accordingly, the district court held that negligent interference with free exercise rights is not actionable under § 1983. We agree and hold that negligent acts by officials causing unintended denials of religious rights do not violate the Free Exercise Clause. Accord Lewis v. Mitchell, 416 F.Supp.2d 935, 942-44 (S.D.Cal.2005); Shaheed, 885 F.Supp. at 868. Lovelace must assert conscious or intentional interference with his free exercise rights to state a valid claim under § 1983.

Although the district court imposed the proper state-of-mind requirement, it partially erred in finding that the *202defendants’ actions “resulted from negligence and not from intentional action.” J.A. 171. The court correctly assessed the evidence against Shinault and Lee (in their individual capacities), but it underestimated the strength of the evidence against Lester. The facts, taken in the light most favorable to Lovelace, raise a genuine dispute whether Lester acted intentionally in depriving Lovelace of his free exercise rights. For this reason, summary judgment in favor of Lester on the First Amendment claim was error.

In sum, we vacate the summary judgment in favor of Lester in his individual capacity and in favor of Lee in his official capacity on the free exercise claim.10

B.

Lovelace also challenges the prison Ramadan policy on procedural due process grounds. To succeed on this claim, Lovelace must show that: he was denied a liberty interest protected by the Due Process Clause, an interest that can arise either from the Constitution itself or from state laws or policies, Wilkinson v. Austin, 545 U.S. 209, 220-221, 125 S.Ct. 2384, 2393, 162 L.Ed.2d 174 (2005); this denial imposed on him an “atypical and significant hardship ... in relation to the ordinary incidents of prison life,” Sandin v. Conner, 515 U.S. 472, 484, 115 S.Ct. 2293, 132 L.Ed.2d 418 (1995); and the process that the state prison employed was constitutionally inadequate, Wilkinson, 125 S.Ct. at 2395-96, 125 S.Ct. 2384 (2005). The adequacy of the procedures in place is assessed by balancing three factors: (1) the private interest affected by the government action; (2) the risk of erroneous deprivation through the procedures used and the probable value, if any, of alternative or additional procedures; and (3) the state’s interest, including the function involved and the fiscal and administrative burdens of added safeguards. Id. (citing Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319, 335, 96 S.Ct. 893, 47 L.Ed.2d 18 (1976)). This third factor encompasses the state’s interest in prison management, particularly in allocating scarce resources and in maintaining order, security, and discipline. See id. at 2396-97, 125 S.Ct. 2384; see also Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 U.S. 539, 556, 94 S.Ct. 2963, 41 L.Ed.2d 935 (1974) (recognizing that there must be “mutual accommodation” between institutional needs and inmates’ constitutional protections). Additionally, to establish liability under § 1983, Lovelace must show that the defendants acted intentionally in depriving him of his protected interest. Because the protections of the Due Process Clause are not triggered by the “mere failure to take reasonable care,” negligent deprivations are not actionable under § 1983. Pink, 52 F.3d at 75; see also Daniels, 474 U.S. at 330-31, 106 S.Ct. 662.

The district court failed to address Lovelace’s due process claim, presumably because it had already concluded that “the actions of defendants were negligent rather than intentional.” J.A. 168. But this conclusion (even if it were correct as to all the defendants) has no bearing on Lovelace’s official-capacity suit against Warden Lee for issuing the policy. Lovelace alleges that the policy by its own terms allowed due process violations in the identification and removal of offenders from the pass list.

We remand for further proceedings on the due process claim against Lee *203in his official capacity. The district court must evaluate in the first instance (1) whether Lovelace has a liberty interest in Ramadan observance that is protected by the Due Process Clause and (2) if so, whether the prison’s post-deprivation grievance process, which lasted nearly two months and ended one month after Ramadan, was unconstitutional in its failure to guard against erroneous deprivations and arbitrary decisionmaking. See Wilkinson, 125 S.Ct. at 2396.

The dissent would have this court consider and dismiss Lovelace’s due process claim against the warden in his official capacity, even though the district court did not address the claim. Lovelace’s due process claim might ultimately fail, but for now we should be “mindful that we are a court of review, not of first view.” Cutter, 544 U.S. at 718 n. 7, 125 S.Ct. 2113. Several considerations counsel against our rejection of this claim without the benefit of district court consideration. The second Mathews v. Eldridge factor instructs a court to consider “the risk of an erroneous deprivation ... through the procedures used, and the probable value, if any, of additional or substitute procedural safeguards.” 424 U.S. at 335, 96 S.Ct. 893. Here, when Lovelace filed his unsuccessful grievances and complaints, prison officials limited their inquiry to determining that Officer Lester was standing behind his report that he had seen Lovelace break the fast. The dissent suggests that this inquiry was sufficient. Lovelace, however, urged prison officials to take additional steps at the time: among other things, he requested officials to view the cafeteria surveillance tapes for the lunch period in question and to show Lovelace’s face card to Officer Lester in an effort to determine whether Lester had correctly identified him. These additional steps were not taken, and the prison has not discussed their probable value, or lack of value, to the process. Nor has the prison explained, under the third Mathews v. Eldridge factor, whether the additional steps would have imposed “fiscal and administrative” burdens that made them impractical. Id. It is not “the worst kind of judicial intrusion,” as the dissent charges, post at 64, for us to have the district court consider these relevant questions in the first instance.

TV.

Finally, Lovelace challenges two of the district court’s procedural rulings. Lovelace first argues that the district court erred in granting Lee’s motion for enlargement of time to respond to the complaint, Fed.R.Civ.P. 6(b), and in denying his own motion for a default judgment against Lee, Fed.R.Civ.P. 55(b). Lee stated in his motion that he and counsel “had some difficulty establishing contact with each other” and that “further delay occurred” when he and counsel tried to determine when he was served with process. J.A. 103. Lee filed this motion on May 28, 2004, four days after his response to Lovelace’s complaint was due. Finding that Lee “ha[d] shown good cause for his failure to file a timely response to the complaint,” the district court granted Lee’s motion for enlargement of time and denied Lovelace’s motion for a default judgment. J.A. 162.

A district court has discretion to grant an enlargement of time “upon motion made after the expiration of the specified period ... where the failure to act was the result of excusable neglect.” Fed. R.Civ.P. 6(b). We find no abuse of discretion here. The district court had a reasonable basis for finding good cause (or excusable neglect) for Lee’s delay, given that Lee had difficulty establishing contact with counsel and filed a motion for an extension *204of time within four days after his responsive pleading was due.

Lovelace also challenges the district court’s decision to consider Lester’s second, executed affidavit on grounds that the affidavit was “untimely [and] ... incredible on its face.” J.A. 190. Lee submitted his executed affidavit on October 17, 2003, roughly five weeks after he submitted his motion for summary judgment along with his first, unexecuted affidavit. A district court has discretion to accept an untimely affidavit. See Fed.R.Civ.P. 6(b), 6(d). While it is puzzling that Lester did not offer any explanation for his five-week delay, we cannot say that the district court abused its discretion in considering the late affidavit, an important document in this case.

V.

We vacate summary judgment in favor of Officer Lester in his individual capacity on the RLUIPA and free exercise claims. We vacate summary judgment in favor of Warden Lee on the claims asserted against him in his official capacity. We affirm the remainder of the district court’s rulings. Having vacated in part, we remand for proceedings consistent with this opinion.

AFFIRMED IN PART, VACATED IN PART, AND REMANDED.